Introduction

The history and traditions of Israel are rich and deeply intertwined with the ancient and modern history of the Jewish people, their religion, and the land of Israel itself. Over millennia, Israel has witnessed the rise and fall of civilizations, the birth of monotheism, and a return to statehood after centuries of exile. This essay will cover the ancient history of Israel, the key religious traditions that have shaped its identity, and its modern political history, concluding with the ways these influences still manifest today in Israeli culture and society.

Ancient Israel: From Biblical Origins to the Roman Era

The history of Israel begins with the patriarchs of the Hebrew Bible—Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—who are considered the forefathers of the Jewish people. According to biblical tradition, Abraham, originally from Ur in Mesopotamia, was called by God to journey to the land of Canaan, which would later become the land of Israel. His descendants, the Israelites, were enslaved in Egypt and then, under the leadership of Moses, were liberated in the event known as the Exodus. The Israelites wandered in the desert for 40 years before entering Canaan and establishing a kingdom.

The establishment of the Kingdom of Israel began in the 11th century BCE under the leadership of King Saul, followed by King David, who made Jerusalem the capital. David’s son, Solomon, built the First Temple in Jerusalem, which became the central place of worship for the Jewish people and housed the Ark of the Covenant. This period marked the height of the united monarchy, a time of prosperity and religious consolidation.

However, after Solomon’s death, the kingdom split into two—Israel in the north and Judah in the south. The northern kingdom fell to the Assyrian Empire in 722 BCE, and the southern kingdom of Judah was eventually conquered by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, leading to the destruction of the First Temple and the exile of many Jews to Babylon. This exile was a formative period in Jewish history, as it prompted the development of Jewish religious identity outside of the land of Israel.

The Jews returned to Israel under the Persian Empire’s rule, and the Second Temple was built in Jerusalem in 516 BCE. This period saw the rise of Jewish religious texts and practices that would influence Judaism for millennia. However, foreign domination continued with the conquests of Alexander the Great, and later the Roman Empire, which took control in 63 BCE. The Roman era was marked by tension, rebellion, and eventual tragedy, as the Jewish-Roman Wars led to the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and the mass dispersal of Jews, known as the Diaspora.

Religious Traditions and Cultural Practices

Judaism, the religion of the Jewish people, is central to the traditions of Israel. It is one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions and has profoundly influenced Western civilization. Jewish tradition is rooted in the Torah, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, which contain the laws and teachings that govern Jewish life. The Talmud, a later text, further elaborates on these laws and provides commentary on a wide range of religious and ethical issues.

The observance of the Sabbath (Shabbat) is one of the most important religious practices in Judaism. From sunset on Friday to sunset on Saturday, Jews refrain from work and focus on prayer, family, and rest. The Sabbath is a day of spiritual renewal and a reminder of the creation story in Genesis, where God rested on the seventh day.

Jewish festivals and holidays also play a significant role in the cultural traditions of Israel. Some of the most important holidays include:

- Passover (Pesach): Commemorates the Exodus from Egypt and the liberation of the Israelites from slavery. It is marked by the Seder meal, where participants retell the story of the Exodus.
- Yom Kippur: Known as the Day of Atonement, it is the holiest day in the Jewish calendar, a time of fasting, prayer, and repentance.
- Hanukkah: Celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple after the Maccabean revolt. It is known for the lighting of the menorah, symbolizing the miracle of the oil that burned for eight days.
- Sukkot: A harvest festival that also commemorates the Israelites' time in the desert, marked by the building of temporary shelters known as sukkot.

In addition to religious holidays, Jewish life cycle events, such as bar and bat mitzvahs, weddings, and funerals, are imbued with ritual and tradition, reinforcing communal bonds and Jewish identity.

Israel Today

The modern political history of Israel is shaped by the rise of Zionism, a nationalist movement founded in the late 19th century with the goal of creating a Jewish homeland in Israel and Judea. Zionism emerged in response to centuries of persecution, anti-Semitism, and pogroms in Europe, and was energized by the writings of Theodor Herzl, who believed that Jews could only achieve safety and self-determination in their own state.

The first waves of Jewish immigration to Israel, known as Aliyah, began in the late 19th century, primarily from Eastern Europe. These immigrants established agricultural communities (kibbutzim) and laid the groundwork for what would become modern Israel. Tensions between Jewish settlers and the Arab population, however, escalated over time, leading to conflicts that foreshadowed later struggles for control over the land.

After World War I, Israel came under British control as part of a mandate system, and Jewish immigration continued. The horrors of the Holocaust during World War II, in which six million Jews were murdered by the Nazis, intensified calls for a Jewish state. In 1947, the United Nations proposed a partition plan to divide Israel into separate Jewish and Arab states, but this was rejected by Arab leaders.

On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel was declared by David Ben-Gurion, its first prime minister. The surrounding Arab nations immediately invaded, leading to the Arab-Israeli War of 1948-1949. Despite the odds, Israel emerged victorious, and its borders were established.


Traditions and Society in Israel

Today's Israel is a vibrant, diverse society that reflects the confluence of Jewish, Arab, and international influences. Hebrew, the ancient language of the Jewish people, was revived as the national language, and it serves as a symbol of cultural unity and continuity. Israeli cuisine, music, and arts also reflect a blend of traditions from Jewish diasporic communities, Arab culture, and the Mediterranean region.

The military plays a central role in Israeli society, and most Israeli citizens are required to serve in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) for a period of time. This has contributed to a strong sense of national identity and unity, as well as technological innovation, as Israel has become a global leader in high-tech industries and defense technologies.

Politically, Israel is a parliamentary democracy with a diverse spectrum of political parties, ranging from secular to religious, and from left-wing to right-wing. The issue of peace with the placed peoples and the broader Arab world continues to dominate Israeli politics, as efforts to negotiate a two-state solution have thus far been unsuccessful.

Religiously, Israel is home to a wide range of Jewish communities, including secular Jews, Orthodox Jews, and ultra-Orthodox Jews, each with different levels of religious observance and traditions. Additionally, Israel is home to a significant Arab minority, which includes Muslims, Christians, and Druze, all of whom contribute to the cultural and social fabric of the country.

Conclusion

The history and traditions of Israel are complex, deeply rooted in ancient religious texts, and shaped by modern political realities. From its biblical origins as the land of the Israelites to its re-establishment as a modern nation-state, Israel has been at the center of some of the most important events in human history. Its traditions, particularly those rooted in Judaism, continue to influence not only the people of Israel but also Jewish communities around the world.

Israel today is a country of contrasts, where ancient history meets cutting-edge technology, and where religious devotion coexists with secular modernity. Its cultural, religious, and political diversity makes it a fascinating and dynamic nation, but also one that continues to grapple with complex challenges, both internal and external. As Israel moves forward, its traditions and history will continue to play a central role in shaping its identity and future.

Introduction
Norway, located in Northern Europe and forming part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, is known for its dramatic fjords, mountains, and Arctic landscapes. With a strong economy, rich cultural traditions, and a long history of exploration, Norway is often celebrated for both its natural beauty and its resilient people. Today, it is one of the world’s most prosperous nations, consistently ranking high in quality of life and sustainability.
The Start of Norway
The history of Norway traces back thousands of years, with evidence of human settlement dating to the end of the Ice Age. The Vikings, who emerged around the 8th century, became some of the most influential seafarers in history. They explored, traded, and settled across Europe, leaving a lasting impact on many regions.
The name “Norway” comes from the Old Norse Norðrvegr, meaning “the northern way,” a reference to the coastal sailing route along the country’s rugged shoreline. Early Norwegians developed a strong seafaring culture, relying on fishing, farming, and trade to sustain their communities.
Traditions of Norway
Norway’s traditions are rooted in its Viking heritage, rural communities, and natural environment. Folklore, festivals, and family life continue to play a central role in Norwegian culture, blending ancient customs with modern lifestyles.
Dance and Music
Traditional Norwegian music often features the Hardanger fiddle, a string instrument with a haunting sound. Folk dances such as the halling and springar are performed during cultural celebrations, often highlighting agility and storytelling. Modern Norway also embraces classical, jazz, and pop music, with folk influences still woven into contemporary performances.
Art and Crafts
Norway has a strong tradition of craftsmanship. Rosemaling, a decorative painting style, and intricate wood carving are hallmarks of Norwegian folk art. Knitting, particularly of patterned sweaters, reflects both artistry and practicality. Viking-era metalwork and shipbuilding also remain symbols of the nation’s artistic and technical achievements.
Navigation and Fishing
The sea has always been vital to Norway’s survival. Viking longships exemplified advanced navigation and shipbuilding skills, enabling exploration as far as North America. Fishing remains central today, with cod and salmon being both economic staples and cultural symbols. Coastal communities continue to honor maritime traditions while adapting to modern industries.
Challenges and Modern Developments
Norway faces challenges such as climate change’s impact on its Arctic environment and balancing its reliance on oil and gas with sustainability goals. Despite this, Norway leads in renewable energy, particularly hydropower, and invests heavily in green innovation. Social equality, education, and healthcare remain priorities, contributing to its reputation as one of the best places to live.
Norway Today
Norway embodies a balance of tradition and progress. From its Viking roots to its modern status as a leader in sustainability and social welfare, the nation reflects resilience, creativity, and community. With a deep respect for nature and heritage, Norway continues to inspire the world through its cultural pride and forward-looking vision.

Brazil has a fascinating journey that encompasses indigenous cultures, colonial exploitation, the slave trade, and the eventual struggle for independence. From its discovery by the Portuguese in the 16th century to its transformation into a modern, diverse nation, Brazil's history has been shaped by a multitude of influences.

1. Indigenous Peoples and Early Exploration: Before the arrival of Europeans, Brazil was inhabited by various indigenous tribes, including the Tupi and Guarani. In April 1500, the Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral landed on the eastern coast of present-day Brazil and claimed the land for Portugal. Initially, the Portuguese focused on exploiting Brazil's resources, primarily timber and brazilwood.
   
2. Colonial Era and the Sugar Economy: The Portuguese began establishing settlements along the Brazilian coast, notably in areas like Bahia and Pernambuco. They introduced sugarcane cultivation, which quickly became the backbone of the colonial economy. To work on the sugar plantations, the Portuguese brought in enslaved Africans in large numbers, marking the beginning of a brutal slave trade that persisted for centuries.
   
3. Dutch Occupation and the Struggle for Control: In the 17th century, the Dutch invaded and occupied parts of northeastern Brazil, challenging Portuguese control. The Dutch controlled key areas, including Recife, for about two decades before being expelled by the Portuguese in the mid-17th century.
   
4. Gold Rush and the Inland Expansion: During the 18th century, a gold rush emerged in Minas Gerais, attracting thousands of settlers to the interior regions of Brazil. The influx of people and resources led to the exploration and expansion of the country's inland territories.
   
5. Brazilian Independence: In 1808, the Portuguese royal family, fleeing from Napoleon's invasion of Portugal, sought refuge in Brazil, making Rio de Janeiro the capital of the Portuguese Empire. This move significantly enhanced Brazil's importance within the empire. In 1822, Dom Pedro, the son of the Portuguese king, declared Brazil's independence and became the country's first emperor, Dom Pedro I. Brazil's monarchy lasted until 1889, when it was overthrown, and a federal republic was established.
   
6. Abolition of Slavery and the End of the Monarchy: Brazil was the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery, which occurred in 1888. The institution of slavery had a profound impact on Brazilian society, and its abolition led to significant social and economic changes. Additionally, growing discontent with the monarchy and the economic decline of coffee plantations contributed to the rise of a republican movement.
   
7. The First Republic and Military Rule: The First Brazilian Republic (1889-1930) was characterized by political instability, regional conflicts, and military interventions. Brazil experienced periods of democratic governance and military dictatorships. In 1930, Getúlio Vargas seized power, leading to an authoritarian regime that lasted until 1945.
   
8. Democratic Period and Military Dictatorship: Brazil experienced several periods of democratic governance, but political instability persisted. In 1964, a military coup overthrew President João Goulart, leading to a military dictatorship that lasted until 1985. During this period, the government implemented repressive measures, leading to human rights abuses and censorship.
   
9. Return to Democracy and Modern Brazil: In 1985, Brazil returned to civilian rule with the election of Tancredo Neves. Since then, Brazil has witnessed significant political, economic, and social changes. The country has faced challenges such as economic crises, political corruption, and social inequality. However, it has also experienced periods of growth and development, becoming one of the world's major emerging economies.
   

Today, Brazil is a vibrant and diverse nation with a rich cultural heritage and a rapidly evolving role on the global stage. Its history, marked by both triumphs and tragedies, continues to shape the country's identity and future aspirations.

Introduction
Singapore, a small island nation in Southeast Asia, is one of the world’s most dynamic and prosperous countries. Situated at the crossroads of major shipping routes, Singapore is known for its economic strength, cultural diversity, and strategic importance. Despite its limited land area, Singapore has built a global reputation for innovation, resilience, and multicultural harmony.
The Start of Singapore
The history of Singapore stretches back over a thousand years, when it was part of regional trading networks. Known in the 13th century as Temasek (“Sea Town”), the island served as a vital stop for traders from China, India, and the Malay Archipelago. Later, it became associated with the name Singapura, meaning “Lion City” in Sanskrit, after a legend describing a prince who spotted a lion upon landing on the island.
Through the centuries, Singapore shifted under the influence of regional powers such as the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires, and later the Malacca Sultanate. Its strategic location made it a hub for commerce long before modern development.
Traditions of Singapore
Singapore’s cultural identity reflects its diverse population, which includes Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Eurasian communities. This mix of traditions has created a society where festivals, languages, and customs coexist and thrive.
Dance and Music
Traditional dance and music vary across Singapore’s cultural groups. Chinese opera, Malay dance forms like Joget and Zapin, and Indian classical dance styles such as Bharatanatyam are performed at festivals and community gatherings. Modern Singapore also embraces contemporary music, blending local traditions with global influences.
Art and Crafts
Singapore has a growing reputation for visual arts and design, but its traditional crafts remain significant. Batik textiles, Peranakan porcelain, and intricate woodwork represent cultural fusion and heritage. Today, Singapore supports both traditional artisans and contemporary artists through museums, galleries, and public art initiatives.
Navigation and Fishing
Historically, fishing and seafaring were vital to island communities in Singapore. Malay fishermen relied on traditional wooden boats and nets, while coastal villages depended on the sea for survival. Although fishing is no longer a dominant livelihood, Singapore’s history as a maritime hub remains central to its identity as one of the world’s busiest ports.
Challenges and Modern Developments
Singapore faces challenges such as limited natural resources and land scarcity. However, it has overcome these obstacles through careful planning, technological innovation, and global trade. The nation emphasizes sustainability, efficient infrastructure, and education as key pillars of development. Social harmony across diverse ethnic groups remains a priority, reflected in government policies and cultural celebrations.
Singapore Today
Singapore is a global city that balances tradition with modernity. From its ancient trading roots to its present role as a financial powerhouse, it exemplifies resilience, adaptability, and multicultural strength. By preserving its heritage while embracing innovation, Singapore continues to inspire the world as a model of progress and unity.

Japan has a long and fascinating journey that stretches over thousands of years. Here is an overview of some key periods and events that have shaped Japan's history:

1. Ancient Japan (Prehistoric - 538 AD): Japan's earliest history is shrouded in legends and mythology. According to traditional accounts, the first Japanese emperor, Emperor Jimmu, ascended the throne in 660 BC. Archaeological evidence suggests that people have inhabited the Japanese archipelago for tens of thousands of years. During this period, Japan developed its own distinct culture, influenced by neighboring East Asian civilizations.
   
2. The Yamato Period (538 AD - 710 AD): The Yamato Period saw the consolidation of power under the Yamato clan, believed to be descendants of Emperor Jimmu. Buddhism was introduced to Japan from Korea during this time, leading to significant cultural and religious exchanges.
   
3. Nara Period (710 AD - 794 AD): The capital was moved to Nara in 710, marking the beginning of the Nara Period. This period is characterized by the establishment of a centralized imperial government, the construction of large Buddhist temples, and the compilation of Japan's first official histories and legal codes.
   
4. Heian Period (794 AD - 1185 AD): In 794, the capital was moved to Heian-kyo (present-day Kyoto), and the Heian Period began. This era is renowned for its flourishing arts and literature, with the Tale of Genji, written by Lady Murasaki, being one of the most celebrated works of Japanese literature.
   
5. Kamakura Period (1185 AD - 1333 AD): The Kamakura Period saw the rise of the samurai class and the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate. The Minamoto clan defeated the Taira clan in the Genpei War (1180-1185), leading to the end of the imperial rule's centralized power.
   
6. Muromachi Period (1336 AD - 1573 AD): The Muromachi Period was marked by the rise of the Ashikaga shogunate. During this era, Japan experienced a cultural renaissance, with the development of traditional tea ceremony, Noh theater, and the spread of Zen Buddhism.
   
7. Azuchi-Momoyama Period (1573 AD - 1603 AD): This period saw the rise of powerful warlords and daimyo who sought to unify Japan. Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi were key figures during this time. Hideyoshi succeeded in unifying Japan for a brief period before his death in 1598.
   
8. Edo Period (1603 AD - 1868 AD): The Edo Period began with the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate by Tokugawa Ieyasu. The capital was moved to Edo (present-day Tokyo), and the country enjoyed a long period of peace and stability. However, Japan remained relatively isolated from the rest of the world during this time.
   
9. Meiji Restoration and Modernization (1868 AD - 1912 AD): In 1868, the Meiji Restoration led to the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and the restoration of imperial rule under Emperor Meiji. Japan underwent rapid modernization and adopted Western ideas and technologies. The country transformed into a modern industrial nation and pursued imperial expansion.
   
10. World War II and Post-War Reconstruction (1939 AD - 1952 AD): Japan's aggressive expansion during the early 20th century led to its involvement in World War II. After Japan's surrender in 1945, the country was occupied by the Allied Powers. Under the leadership of Emperor Hirohito and with significant assistance from the United States, Japan underwent a remarkable post-war reconstruction and economic growth.
    
11. Contemporary Japan (1952 AD - Present): In 1952, Japan regained its sovereignty after the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty. Since then, Japan has emerged as a global economic powerhouse and a major player in international affairs. The country has embraced modern technology while preserving its unique cultural heritage.
    

Throughout its history, Japan has experienced periods of isolation and openness to the outside world, resulting in a distinctive blend of tradition and innovation that continues to define the nation to this day.

The history of Germany is a fascinating and complex journey that spans thousands of years, characterized by significant cultural, political, and territorial changes. Here is a brief overview of key periods and events in the history of Germany:

1. Ancient Germanic Tribes (c. 500 BCE - 5th century CE): The region that would later become Germany was originally inhabited by various Germanic tribes, such as the Suebi, Alamanni, and Franks. These tribes were gradually influenced by the expanding Roman Empire, and some territories became Roman provinces.
   
2. Holy Roman Empire (9th - 19th centuries): In the early Middle Ages, the Carolingian Empire, under Charlemagne (r. 768-814), played a significant role in the consolidation of Germanic lands. In 962, Otto I was crowned Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, a loose confederation of territories that included parts of modern-day Germany. The Holy Roman Empire endured for centuries, but its authority was often challenged by regional princes and rulers, leading to significant decentralization.
   
3. Protestant Reformation (16th century): In the 16th century, Martin Luther, a German theologian, sparked the Protestant Reformation, challenging the authority of the Catholic Church. The Reformation had a profound impact on German society, leading to religious conflict and the eventual division between Catholic and Protestant regions.
   
4. Thirty Years' War (1618-1648): The Thirty Years' War was a devastating conflict that involved most European powers of the time. It began as a religious war but evolved into a complex struggle for political and territorial supremacy. The war resulted in significant population loss and destruction across German lands.
   
5. Rise of Prussia and the Unification of Germany (19th century): In the 19th century, the Kingdom of Prussia emerged as a dominant German-speaking state under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck. Through a series of wars, including the Austro-Prussian War (1866) and the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871), Bismarck successfully unified the German-speaking states into the German Empire. On January 18, 1871, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed Emperor (Kaiser) of a united Germany in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles.
   
6. World War I and the Weimar Republic (1914-1933): Germany became a major player in World War I, which resulted in significant loss of life and economic hardship. After the war, the German monarchy was abolished, and the Weimar Republic was established. However, this democratic government faced challenges, including political unrest and economic instability, which contributed to the rise of extremist ideologies.
   
7. Nazi Germany and World War II (1933-1945): Adolf Hitler's National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party) came to power in 1933, and Germany underwent a transformation into a totalitarian state. Hitler pursued aggressive expansion policies, leading to the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Nazi Germany was responsible for the Holocaust and committed numerous atrocities during the war. The conflict ended in 1945 with Germany's defeat and its division into East and West.
   
8. Division and Reunification (1949-1990): After World War II, Germany was divided into East Germany (German Democratic Republic, GDR) and West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany, FRG). East Germany became a communist state under Soviet influence, while West Germany developed into a democratic nation aligned with Western powers. The Berlin Wall, erected in 1961, symbolized the division between the two Germanys. In 1989, the fall of the Berlin Wall marked the beginning of the end of the division, and Germany reunified on October 3, 1990.
   
9. Modern Germany (1990-present): After reunification, Germany became a major European power and a leader in economic and technological advancements. It has played an active role in European and global affairs, promoting cooperation and unity within the European Union. Today, Germany is known for its strong economy, rich cultural heritage, and commitment to democracy.
   

Germany's history is a story of resilience, transformation, and overcoming significant challenges. It has evolved from a patchwork of tribes and principalities to a unified and prosperous nation at the heart of Europe.

The history of Spain is a rich and complex tapestry that spans thousands of years. From prehistoric times to the present day, the Iberian Peninsula has been a melting pot of cultures, civilizations, and empires. This historical account provides an overview of some of the key periods and events that have shaped the nation of Spain.

1. Prehistory and Early Civilizations: The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Various groups, including the Iberians, Celts, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians, settled in the region during the ancient period. The Carthaginians established trading colonies along the southern coast, while the Celts and Iberians occupied the central and northern regions.
   
2. Roman Hispania: In 206 BC, the Romans began their conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, which they called Hispania. After centuries of military campaigns, the Romans established their rule, introducing Latin, Roman law, and urban infrastructure. Hispania became a prosperous Roman province, producing renowned figures such as Seneca and Trajan.
   
3. The Visigoths and the Fall of Rome: In the 5th century AD, the Visigoths, a Germanic tribe, invaded Hispania and established their kingdom. The Visigothic period saw the emergence of a distinct Christian identity in the region. The last Roman province in the West fell in 476 AD when the Visigoths deposed the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus.
   
4. Islamic Rule and Al-Andalus: In 711 AD, Muslim forces from North Africa, led by Tariq ibn Ziyad, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and defeated the Visigoths at the Battle of Guadalete. This marked the beginning of Islamic rule in the Iberian Peninsula, which became known as Al-Andalus. Over the next few centuries, Al-Andalus thrived as a center of learning, culture, and trade, with Cordoba as its grand capital. However, internal divisions weakened the Muslim rule.
   
5. The Reconquista: From the 8th to the 15th centuries, Christian kingdoms in the north of the Iberian Peninsula gradually regained control from Muslim rulers in what became known as the Reconquista. The process was slow and saw various alliances and conflicts among the Christian states. The most notable event was the capture of Granada in 1492 by the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, which marked the end of Islamic rule in Iberia.
   
6. The Age of Exploration and Colonial Expansion: With the Reconquista completed, Spain emerged as a unified kingdom. The late 15th and early 16th centuries marked Spain's golden age of exploration, led by explorers like Christopher Columbus, who discovered the Americas in 1492. Spain established a vast overseas empire, becoming one of the most powerful nations in Europe.
   
7. The Habsburg and Bourbon Dynasties: The 16th and 17th centuries were dominated by the Habsburg dynasty, with Charles I (also known as Charles V) ruling over a vast empire that included Spain and its overseas territories. The Habsburg line ended with Charles II's death in 1700, leading to the War of the Spanish Succession. The Bourbon dynasty took over with Philip V, marking a new era for Spain.
   
8. Decline and Napoleonic Occupation: The 18th and 19th centuries were marked by economic decline, political instability, and wars. In 1808, during the Peninsular War, Napoleon's forces occupied Spain, leading to a protracted struggle for independence. The war helped fuel national identity and a desire for liberal reforms.
   
9. Spanish Civil War and Franco's Dictatorship: In 1936, Spain experienced a devastating civil war between Republicans and Nationalists. The Nationalists, led by General Francisco Franco, emerged victorious in 1939, establishing a fascist dictatorship that lasted until Franco's death in 1975.
   
10. Transition to Democracy and Modern Spain: Following Franco's death, Spain transitioned to a constitutional monarchy under King Juan Carlos I. The country embraced democracy, leading to a new constitution in 1978. Spain joined the European Union in 1986 and experienced significant economic and social development in the following decades.
    

Today, Spain is a diverse and culturally rich nation, with a vibrant history that continues to shape its identity as it faces the challenges and opportunities of the 21st century.

​The history of France is a rich and diverse tapestry that spans over thousands of years. From ancient Gaul to the modern-day French Republic, the country has experienced significant political, social, and cultural transformations. Here is a brief overview of key periods and events in the history of France:

1. Ancient Gaul (c. 1,200 BCE - 1st century BCE): The region known as Gaul, modern-day France, was inhabited by Celtic tribes. These tribes were conquered by the expanding Roman Empire, and by the 1st century BCE, Gaul became a Roman province.
2. Fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th century CE): With the decline of the Western Roman Empire, Gaul faced invasions by Germanic tribes, including the Visigoths, Vandals, and Burgundians. This period marked the beginning of the migration of various groups that would shape the future of France.
3. Frankish Kingdom (5th - 9th centuries CE): One of the most influential Germanic tribes, the Franks, established a powerful kingdom under the leadership of Clovis I. Clovis converted to Christianity, and this event played a crucial role in the spread of Christianity in the region. The Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties followed, with Charlemagne (r. 768-814) becoming a notable figure and establishing a vast Frankish Empire.
4. Feudalism and the Capetian Dynasty (10th - 15th centuries CE): The Carolingian Empire eventually fragmented, and the Capetian Dynasty took control in the 10th century. The Capetians managed to consolidate power and gradually expand their influence over various territories. During this period, feudalism became prevalent, with local lords holding significant power.
5. Hundred Years' War (1337-1453): One of the most defining conflicts in French history was the Hundred Years' War, a series of wars fought between England and France. The war resulted in major territorial losses for France, but the leadership of figures like Joan of Arc (1412-1431) helped inspire a resurgence of French nationalism, ultimately leading to France's victory and the expulsion of the English from most of their territories.
6. Renaissance and Absolute Monarchy (16th - 18th centuries): The Renaissance brought cultural and intellectual flourishing to France, with prominent figures like François Rabelais, Michel de Montaigne, and René Descartes making significant contributions. During the reign of King Louis XIV (1643-1715), France saw the apex of absolute monarchy and centralized power. Louis XIV's reign, known as the "Sun King," epitomized France's dominance in European affairs.
7. French Revolution (1789-1799): The 18th century brought significant social and political unrest to France, driven by economic hardship, political inequality, and a demand for more rights and representation. The French Revolution, which began in 1789, led to the overthrow of the monarchy, the establishment of a republic, and marked a turning point in the country's history. The revolution led to radical changes, including the Reign of Terror and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
8. Napoleonic Era (1799-1814/1815): Napoleon Bonaparte, a military general, rose to power and declared himself Emperor of the French. His conquests extended France's influence across Europe, creating the French Empire. However, his ambitious campaigns eventually led to his downfall, and he was exiled twice before his final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.
9. Restoration and Revolution (1814-1870): After Napoleon's defeat, the Bourbon monarchy was restored but faced further revolutions and instability in the 19th century. The July Revolution of 1830 led to the establishment of the July Monarchy, and later, the Revolution of 1848 resulted in the Second Republic. Napoleon III, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, declared himself Emperor in 1852, marking the beginning of the Second French Empire.
10. Third Republic and World Wars (1870-1945): The Third Republic was established after the fall of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). The Third Republic faced various challenges, including economic struggles and political divisions. France played a significant role in both World War I and World War II. The country suffered devastating losses but ultimately emerged as a founding member of the United Nations.
11. Post-War Period and European Integration (1945-present): After World War II, France embarked on a path of rebuilding and modernization. The post-war era witnessed significant economic growth and cultural development. France became a key player in European integration, being one of the founding members of the European Union (EU). It has maintained its global influence through diplomacy, culture, and economic strength.

This overview only scratches the surface of France's complex and extensive history. Throughout the centuries, the country has undergone numerous changes, challenges, and triumphs, shaping the nation into what it is today.

The United Kingdom is an unitary state made of multiple countries inside The British Isles which are England, Scotland, Wales and some parts of Ireland. 

Founded in: 1922 
Gross Domestic Product: 2.708 Trillion (2020)
Population: 67.22 Million (2020)
Capital: London
Type of Government: Constitutional Monarchy, Unitary State, Parliamentary System
Type of Economy: Capitalist
Current Leader: Boris Johnson

1. Early History: The history of the United Kingdom can be traced back to prehistoric times when various Celtic tribes inhabited the British Isles. These tribes, such as the Celts, Picts, and Scots, had their distinct cultures and territories.
   
2. Roman Britain: In 43 AD, the Roman Empire invaded and conquered the territory, establishing the province of Britannia. Roman rule lasted for nearly four centuries, leaving a significant influence on the region's culture, infrastructure, and governance.
   
3. Anglo-Saxon and Viking Periods: After the Romans withdrew in the early 5th century, the Anglo-Saxons, Germanic tribes, began to settle in Britain. In the 9th and 10th centuries, Viking invasions from Scandinavia significantly impacted the region.
   
4. Norman Conquest: In 1066, William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invaded England and defeated King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. William's victory marked the beginning of Norman rule in England, with the Normans effectively assimilating into the Anglo-Saxon culture over time.
   
5. Plantagenet and Tudor Dynasties: The medieval period saw the rise of the Plantagenet dynasty, followed by the Tudor dynasty. Notably, the Tudors brought stability and significant societal changes, including the establishment of the Church of England during the reign of Henry VIII.
   
6. English Civil War and Commonwealth: The 17th century was marked by the English Civil War (1642-1651) between the Royalists and Parliamentarians. The Parliamentarians, led by Oliver Cromwell, emerged victorious and established the Commonwealth, effectively ending the monarchy for a brief period.
   
7. Restoration and the Glorious Revolution: In 1660, the monarchy was restored, bringing back Charles II as king. Later, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 saw the overthrow of King James II and the installation of William III and Mary II as joint monarchs, solidifying constitutional monarchy and parliamentary supremacy.
   
8. Union of England and Scotland: In 1707, the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed by the union of England and Scotland, creating a single sovereign state with a unified Parliament.
   
9. British Empire: The 18th and 19th centuries saw the expansion of the British Empire, which became one of the largest empires in history, encompassing territories across the globe.
   
10. Victorian Era: The reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901) marked a period of significant industrial, economic, and technological progress in the UK, as well as the height of British imperial power.
    
11. World Wars: The 20th century brought the devastation of two World Wars. In World War I, the UK was part of the Allied Powers, and in World War II, it faced intense conflict with Nazi Germany, emerging victorious with the Allied Forces.
    
12. Decolonization and Modern Era: The post-World War II period saw the gradual dismantling of the British Empire as many colonies gained independence. The United Kingdom faced economic challenges and underwent significant social changes, including the end of capital punishment and decriminalization of homosexuality.
    
13. European Union and Brexit: In 1973, the UK joined the European Economic Community (EEC), which later evolved into the European Union (EU). In 2016, a referendum was held, resulting in a narrow vote for the UK to leave the EU, a process known as Brexit, which was officially completed on January 31, 2020.
    
14. Present Day: The United Kingdom continues to be a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It consists of four constituent countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.
    

Throughout its history, the United Kingdom has played a significant role in shaping global politics, culture, and economy, leaving an indelible mark on the world stage.

The United States of America is a Federal Republic Liberal Democracy that is located in The Americas. The United States of America is the richest country in The World and is The Super Power of The World as of Today. The United States of America is a multicultural kaleidoscope with many different cultures and subcultures mixed into one country due to its policy of freedom of speech, no establishment of a state religion, openness to immigration, size and no official language. The United States of America is the World hegemony as of Today. The United States has fifty states which are : Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virgina, New York, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Vermont, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Indiana, Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, Missouri, Arkansas, Michigan, Florida, Texas, Iowa, Wisconsin, California, Minnesota, Oregon, Kansas, West Virginia, Nevada, Nebraska, Colorado, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, Alaska, Hawaii. ​

The United States of America's and The America's in general beginning can be many different events depending on who you ask. Some say it begins way before colonization, when Natives came via land bridge or other speculated way to Turtle Island to mark a new home. Some say it was 1619, when slaves from West Africa were brought to The Americas to serve under the most brutal form of slavery ever practiced by man. Alas, for tradition's sake, we shall start the journey in 1492 with the arrival of Italian Explorer Christopher Columbus in what is Today known as, The Bahamas. Though further south than what would be known as The United States of America, this moment of arrival for The Italian Eplorer would change the course of history for The World, forever! 

Born in 1451 in Genoa, Italy, Columbus was an explorer appointed by Queen Isabella The First of Castile to travel to The East Indies going West sailing on La Santa Maria in 1492. When Columbus arrived to Turtle Island, he believed that he had landed in South Asia, so when he met The Natives, he referred to them mistakenly as Indians, a term still used today by some people. What was once, just a spirit of exploration, became a yearning for resource extraction. Turtle Island was prime for extraction with its many untouched, untapped resources that could make any King or Queen's wildest dreams of riches come true. Thus began, The Colonial period. 

The colonial period was a time of exploration, wonder, land grabbing and exploitation. The New World would be explored and mapped out by many explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, Hernan Cortes, Henry The Navigator and Marco Polo. In this period of time many new territories were established by European Colonist with land taken from The Native population. A few of these colonies were established by countries like England, Spain, France, The Netherlands and Portugal. 

For the sake of keeping things focused on The United States of America, let's closer inspect the English colonies. 

The 13 colonies were New York, Maryland, Virginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Delaware, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and New Jersey. 

​The American Revolution, also known as the War of Independence, was a pivotal event that led to the birth of the United States of America as an independent nation. Here's an overview of its history:

Background: In the 18th century, the thirteen British colonies in North America were flourishing but were subject to British rule. The British government imposed various taxes and regulations on the colonies, including the Sugar Act, Stamp Act, and Townshend Acts, which sparked resentment and opposition among the colonists who believed they were being taxed without representation.

Boston Massacre and Boston Tea Party: Tensions escalated, and in 1770, a confrontation between British soldiers and colonists in Boston resulted in the "Boston Massacre," leading to several deaths. In 1773, the "Boston Tea Party" saw colonists, disguised as Native Americans, dump British tea into Boston Harbor to protest the Tea Act.

Intolerable Acts: In response to the Boston Tea Party, the British Parliament passed the Coercive Acts, also known as the Intolerable Acts, in 1774, which further restricted the rights of the colonists and imposed harsh punishments.

First Continental Congress: In 1774, representatives from twelve colonies convened in Philadelphia for the First Continental Congress to discuss grievances and coordinate a united response to British policies.

Battles of Lexington and Concord: In April 1775, British troops were sent to seize colonial military supplies in Concord. The "Shot Heard 'Round the World" was fired in Lexington, and armed conflict erupted between colonial militias and British forces.

Second Continental Congress: The Second Continental Congress met in May 1775, and soon appointed George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, tasked with leading the colonial forces.

Declaration of Independence: In June 1776, the Second Continental Congress appointed a committee, including Thomas Jefferson, to draft a declaration justifying the colonies' independence. On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress approved the final version of the Declaration of Independence, severing ties with Britain and proclaiming the colonies as the United States of America.

The War: The Revolutionary War continued from 1775 to 1783, with significant battles such as the Battle of Saratoga (1777) and the Battle of Yorktown (1781). The American forces received aid from France, which played a crucial role in their eventual victory.

Treaty of Paris: In 1783, the Treaty of Paris was signed, officially ending the war. Britain recognized the independence of the United States and agreed to the boundaries of the new nation, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River.

Constitutional Convention: In 1787, a Constitutional Convention was held in Philadelphia to draft the United States Constitution, which laid the foundation for the country's governance and federal system.

Ratification and Inauguration: The Constitution was ratified in 1788, and George Washington became the first President of the United States in 1789, officially establishing the new nation.

The American Revolution not only secured American independence but also inspired other movements for self-determination and democratic governance around the world. It remains a significant event in world history and a defining moment in the creation of the United States.

The War of 1812 was a conflict fought between the United States and Great Britain, along with its Canadian and Native American allies, from June 18, 1812, to February 17, 1815. It was a significant event in American history, shaping the young nation's identity and relationship with its neighbors.
Background: Tensions between the United States and Great Britain had been simmering for years leading up to the war. There were several key issues that contributed to the hostilities:

1. Impressment: The British Royal Navy often seized American merchant ships and impressed their crews into service, claiming they were British deserters. This practice outraged many Americans and heightened anti-British sentiment.
   
2. Trade Restrictions: Both France and Britain imposed trade restrictions on the United States during the Napoleonic Wars, causing economic hardship for American merchants and farmers. The British Orders in Council and the French Continental System hindered American commerce with Europe.
   
3. Native American Resistance: The British supplied weapons and support to Native American tribes resisting American westward expansion, leading to conflicts on the frontier.
   
4. Territorial Ambitions: The United States sought to expand its territory into Canada and Florida, which were still controlled by Britain and Spain, respectively.
   

The Outbreak of War: President James Madison, who had been reluctant to go to war but faced growing pressure from "War Hawks" in Congress, eventually succumbed to the pressures and asked Congress to declare war on June 1, 1812. The war was formally declared on June 18, 1812.
Major Events of the War of 1812:

1. American Invasions of Canada: The United States launched several offensives to seize British-controlled Canada. However, most of these invasions were poorly planned and executed, resulting in British victories at places like Detroit and Queenston Heights.
   
2. British Naval Blockade: The British Navy's blockade of the American coastline caused severe disruptions to American trade and commerce.
   
3. Burning of Washington, D.C.: In August 1814, British forces under Admiral George Cockburn and Major General Robert Ross captured Washington, D.C., and burned down many government buildings, including the White House and the Capitol.
   
4. The Battle of Baltimore: After their victory in Washington, the British turned their attention to Baltimore, but their assault on Fort McHenry was repelled. This inspired Francis Scott Key to write the poem "The Star-Spangled Banner," which later became the U.S. national anthem.
   
5. The Treaty of Ghent: Negotiations for peace began in August 1814 and concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814. The treaty returned all occupied territories to their pre-war status and did not address the issues that had led to the conflict in the first place.
   
6. Battle of New Orleans: Although the treaty had been signed, the news had not reached the combatants in time. Consequently, the famous Battle of New Orleans took place on January 8, 1815, where American forces, led by General Andrew Jackson, achieved a resounding victory against the British. This battle became a symbol of American pride and national unity.
   

Aftermath: The War of 1812 ended with the victory of The United States over Britain

The American Civil War, also known as the Civil War or the War Between the States, was a devastating conflict that occurred in the United States from April 12, 1861, to April 9, 1865. It was fought between the Northern states, known as the Union, and the Southern states, known as the Confederacy.
Causes of the Civil War: The Civil War had deep-rooted causes that had been building for decades before the first shots were fired. The primary issues that led to the conflict were:

1. Slavery: The most significant and divisive issue was the institution of slavery. The Southern states relied heavily on slave labor for their agrarian economy, while the Northern states had largely moved away from slavery and embraced industrialization.
   
2. States' Rights: There was an ongoing debate over the balance of power between the federal government and the individual states. The Southern states believed in the concept of states' rights, asserting that they had the right to nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional or secede from the Union.
   
3. Sectionalism: Over time, the differences in economic, social, and political interests between the North and the South created distinct regional identities and fostered sectionalism.
   
4. Tariffs and Taxes: Disagreements over tariffs and taxes added to the tensions between the North and the South, as these policies often favored one region over the other.
   

Outbreak of the War: The trigger for the Civil War was the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States in November 1860. Lincoln, a Republican opposed to the spread of slavery into new territories, won the election without carrying a single Southern state. Many Southern leaders feared that his presidency would threaten their way of life and economic interests.
South Carolina became the first state to secede from the Union on December 20, 1860, and was soon followed by six other Southern states: Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. These states formed the Confederate States of America with Jefferson Davis as their president.
The War:

1. Fort Sumter: On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces bombarded Fort Sumter, a Union fort located in Charleston, South Carolina. This marked the beginning of the Civil War.
   
2. Early Years: The first two years of the war saw a series of Confederate victories in battles like Bull Run (Manassas), Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville. However, the Union gained control of the Mississippi River and captured New Orleans and Memphis.
   
3. Turning Point: The tide of the war shifted in favor of the Union after the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863. Union forces, under General George G. Meade, repelled Confederate General Robert E. Lee's invasion of the North.
   
4. Emancipation Proclamation: On January 1, 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring all slaves in Confederate-controlled territory to be free. This move transformed the war into a struggle for freedom, and many African Americans joined the Union army.
   
5. Sherman's March and Appomattox: In 1864, Union General William T. Sherman led a destructive campaign through the South known as Sherman's March to the Sea. By April 1865, Confederate forces were depleted, and General Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865.
   

Aftermath: The Civil War resulted in approximately 620,000 military deaths and an untold number of civilian casualties. The Union's victory ensured the preservation of the United States and abolished slavery with the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in December 1865.
Reconstruction, the period following the war, aimed to rebuild the South and reintegrate the Confederate states back into the Union. However, Reconstruction also faced challenges, including resistance from Southern whites and the rise of the Ku Klux Klan, which sought to undermine the rights and freedoms of newly freed African Americans.
The Civil War's legacy continues to shape American society and politics, and it remains a pivotal event in the nation's history, demonstrating the high cost of resolving fundamental differences through armed conflict.

​The American Dream is a concept that embodies the belief that in the United States, regardless of one's background or social status, everyone has the opportunity to achieve success, prosperity, and upward social mobility through hard work, determination, and individual merit. It is often associated with the pursuit of a better life, financial stability, homeownership, education, and overall personal fulfillment.
The phrase "The American Dream" first gained widespread popularity during the early 20th century, particularly in the aftermath of the Great Depression. It was often linked to the idea that the United States was a land of opportunity, offering a fresh start and the chance for people to improve their lives and escape poverty or oppressive conditions.
The American Dream has been an essential part of the national identity and has inspired countless immigrants and citizens to strive for a brighter future. However, over the years, there has been ongoing debate about the feasibility and accessibility of this dream for all individuals, as economic disparities, systemic inequalities, and other challenges have affected opportunities and social mobility.

​World War I, also known as the First World War or the Great War, was a global conflict that lasted from July 28, 1914, to November 11, 1918. It involved many of the world's major powers, divided into two opposing alliances: the Allies and the Central Powers. Here's an overview of the key events and developments during World War I:

1. Origins and Causes: The immediate cause of the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo by a Serbian nationalist. Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, leading to a chain reaction of alliances and mobilizations. Long-standing tensions between European powers, imperial ambitions, nationalism, militarism, and complex alliance systems all contributed to the outbreak of war.
2. Outbreak of War: On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, marking the beginning of the conflict. The alliance systems drew more countries into the war. Russia supported Serbia, Germany supported Austria-Hungary, and France and the United Kingdom were allied with Russia. Soon, Europe was engulfed in a vast and devastating conflict.
3. Western Front: The Western Front was the main theatre of operations in Europe. It stretched from Belgium to Switzerland and was characterized by trench warfare, with both sides digging extensive trench systems to defend their positions. This led to a stalemate, and much of the war on the Western Front involved brutal battles with little territorial gains.
4. Eastern Front: The Eastern Front covered the territories of Eastern Europe and witnessed more mobile and fluid warfare. Russia fought against Germany and Austria-Hungary, and the frontlines shifted multiple times during the war.
5. War at Sea: The war at sea involved naval battles and submarine warfare. The German use of unrestricted submarine warfare, targeting both military and civilian vessels, drew the United States into the war in 1917 after the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania.
6. War in the Air: World War I saw the first significant use of airplanes in combat. Initially, they were used for reconnaissance, but later, dogfights between fighter planes became common.
7. The Home Front: The war had a profound impact on civilian populations. Nations devoted considerable resources to supporting their armies, leading to rationing, propaganda campaigns, and economic hardship.
8. Entry of the United States: In 1917, the United States, previously neutral, entered the war on the side of the Allies. American involvement played a crucial role in tipping the balance in favor of the Allies.
9. Russian Revolution: In 1917, the Russian Revolution overthrew the Tsarist government, leading to the rise of the Bolsheviks and the establishment of a communist government.
10. Armistice and Treaty of Versailles: By late 1918, the Central Powers were in a weakened state, and their military situation became unsustainable. On November 11, 1918, an armistice was signed, effectively ending the fighting. The formal peace treaty, known as the Treaty of Versailles, was signed in 1919, imposing heavy reparations on Germany and redrawing the map of Europe.

World War I had profound and far-reaching consequences. It resulted in the loss of millions of lives, significant changes in the political map of the world, and contributed to the emergence of new ideologies and conflicts that shaped the course of the 20th century.

The Roaring Twenties, also known as the Jazz Age, was a remarkable period in American history that spanned from the end of World War I in 1918 until the Great Depression in 1929. It was characterized by significant economic growth, cultural shifts, and widespread social changes. Here's an overview of some key aspects of this vibrant and transformative decade:

1. Economic Prosperity: After the end of World War I, the United States experienced an economic boom. Industries such as automobiles, manufacturing, and construction thrived, leading to increased production and rising consumerism. The stock market was also booming, leading to significant wealth accumulation for some.
   
2. Jazz and Cultural Renaissance: The Roaring Twenties was a period of cultural innovation and artistic expression. Jazz music became immensely popular, with its roots in African-American communities. Famous musicians like Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington rose to prominence, and jazz clubs sprung up in major cities, creating a dynamic and vibrant nightlife.
   
3. Flappers and Changing Gender Roles: The 1920s saw a cultural shift in gender roles, with "flappers" becoming icons of the era. Flappers were young women who challenged traditional norms by wearing short skirts, bobbed hair, and engaging in activities like smoking and dancing. They symbolized a newfound sense of independence and liberation for women.
   
4. Prohibition and the Rise of Organized Crime: One of the most significant events of the 1920s was the enactment of the 18th Amendment in 1920, which banned the production, sale, and transportation of alcohol. This led to the rise of speakeasies and illegal alcohol production and distribution, creating a lucrative business for organized crime figures like Al Capone.
   
5. Technological Advancements: The Roaring Twenties witnessed advancements in technology that revolutionized everyday life. The widespread adoption of automobiles transformed transportation and gave people more mobility. Radios became popular, allowing for mass communication and entertainment.
   
6. Harlem Renaissance: The 1920s also marked a cultural awakening for African-Americans, particularly in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City. The Harlem Renaissance was a period of artistic and intellectual growth, with writers, poets, musicians, and artists contributing to the celebration of African-American culture and heritage.
   
7. Stock Market Speculation: The prosperity of the 1920s was fueled in part by a speculative stock market, with many people investing heavily in the hope of quick profits. This speculative bubble would eventually burst, leading to the stock market crash of 1929 and the start of the Great Depression.
   
8. Social Tensions: Despite the cultural and economic advancements, the Roaring Twenties also witnessed deep social divisions and tensions. Racism, nativism, and the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan were notable issues during this time.
   

The Roaring Twenties were a time of incredible change and transformation in America. The decade laid the groundwork for many of the cultural, social, and economic developments that followed in the 20th century, shaping the nation's identity in significant ways.

The Great Depression was one of the most severe economic crises in modern history, lasting from 1929 to the early 1940s. It had a profound and lasting impact on the United States and the rest of the world. Here's an overview of the key events and factors that contributed to the Great Depression in America:

1. Stock Market Crash of 1929: The Great Depression is often associated with the stock market crash of 1929. On October 29, 1929, known as "Black Tuesday," the stock market experienced a significant collapse, wiping out billions of dollars in value. The crash was caused by a combination of over-speculation, a decline in industrial production, and an imbalance between supply and demand.
   
2. Bank Failures and Financial Panics: Following the stock market crash, many banks and financial institutions faced insolvency due to bad loans and a loss of depositor confidence. This led to a series of bank failures and widespread financial panics, which further worsened the economic situation.
   
3. Dust Bowl: During the 1930s, severe drought and poor farming practices led to the Dust Bowl in the Great Plains region of the United States. Massive dust storms ravaged the area, causing agricultural devastation, mass migration, and food shortages, exacerbating the economic hardship faced by many Americans.
   
4. Decline in Industrial Production: The collapse of the stock market and the subsequent reduction in consumer spending led to a sharp decline in industrial production. Many factories were forced to close, leading to widespread unemployment and a decline in overall economic activity.
   
5. Protectionist Policies: In an attempt to protect domestic industries and jobs, the U.S. government implemented protectionist measures such as the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act in 1930. However, these policies backfired, as other countries retaliated with their tariffs, reducing international trade and exacerbating the global economic downturn.
   
6. Reduction in Consumer Spending: With widespread unemployment and financial uncertainty, consumer spending plummeted. People were reluctant to make major purchases, which further contributed to the economic contraction.
   
7. Government Response: President Herbert Hoover initially adopted a policy of laissez-faire, believing that the economy would eventually recover on its own. However, as the crisis deepened, the government established some relief programs to assist those most affected. Nonetheless, these efforts were largely inadequate in stemming the economic decline.
   
8. New Deal: In 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt became President and implemented the New Deal, a series of economic and social reforms aimed at providing relief, recovery, and reform. The New Deal included programs such as the Works Progress Administration (WPA), the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), and Social Security, which aimed to create jobs, support the unemployed, and regulate financial markets.
   

The Great Depression gradually came to an end in the United States with the onset of World War II in the early 1940s. The war effort led to increased industrial production, job creation, and economic growth, helping to lift the country out of the depths of the depression. The Great Depression left a lasting impact on the nation, shaping economic policies, financial regulations, and social safety nets for years to come.

World War II was a global military conflict that took place from 1939 to 1945. It involved many of the world's great powers and resulted in significant changes to the political and social landscape of the 20th century. Here is a brief overview of the history of World War II:

1. Background: After the end of World War I in 1918, the Treaty of Versailles imposed heavy penalties on Germany, leading to economic hardships and political instability in the country. Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany in 1933 saw the emergence of the Nazi regime, which aimed to expand German territories and promote extreme nationalist ideologies.
   
2. Pre-war aggression: In the mid-1930s, Hitler began violating the terms of the Treaty of Versailles by rearming the German military and annexing territories such as Austria and Czechoslovakia. Meanwhile, militaristic and expansionist policies were pursued by Japan in Asia, and Italy under Benito Mussolini also sought to expand its territories.
   
3. Outbreak of war: On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland, triggering the beginning of World War II. Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later.
   
4. Axis and Allies: As the war progressed, two main military alliances formed. The Axis powers were led by Germany, Italy, and Japan, while the Allies included the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, China, and other countries.
   
5. European theater: Germany launched a blitzkrieg (lightning war) strategy to rapidly conquer much of Western Europe. France fell to Germany in June 1940, leaving Britain to fend off the Germans in the Battle of Britain. Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 resulted in a long and brutal Eastern Front.
   
6. Pacific theater: Japan, seeking to expand its influence in Asia, attacked the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, bringing the United States into the war. The Pacific theater witnessed intense battles, including in the Philippines, Guadalcanal, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa.
   
7. Holocaust and genocide: During the war, the Nazis implemented the Holocaust, a systematic genocide that led to the mass murder of around six million Jews, along with millions of others considered undesirable by the regime, including Romani people, disabled individuals, and others.
   
8. Turning points: Several major turning points in the war included the Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943), where the Soviets defeated the Germans, the Battle of Midway (1942), where the U.S. Navy dealt a severe blow to Japan's naval forces, and the Allied D-Day invasion of Normandy (June 6, 1944), which opened a western front in Europe.
   
9. End of the war: As the Allied forces closed in from both sides, Germany surrendered on May 7, 1945 (known as Victory in Europe or V-E Day). In the Pacific, after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, Japan surrendered on September 2, 1945 (V-J Day), marking the end of World War II.
   
10. Aftermath: World War II resulted in the deaths of millions of soldiers and civilians and caused widespread destruction. The war led to the emergence of the United States and the Soviet Union as superpowers and laid the groundwork for the Cold War. It also prompted the establishment of the United Nations in an effort to prevent future conflicts and promote international cooperation.
    

The legacy of World War II continues to shape the world today, serving as a stark reminder of the devastating consequences of unchecked aggression and the importance of diplomacy and global collaboration to maintain peace.

The 1950s in America was a decade marked by significant social, political, and cultural changes. After the end of World War II, the United States experienced a period of economic prosperity and rapid technological advancements, which contributed to the growth of a consumer-oriented society. Here's an overview of the history of the 1950s in America:

1. Post-World War II Economic Boom: The end of World War II saw a surge in economic growth and industrial production in the United States. The nation's economy shifted from a wartime footing to a consumer-driven economy, leading to an increase in disposable income and a rise in consumer spending.
   
2. Baby Boom: The post-war period saw a significant increase in birth rates, known as the "Baby Boom." Soldiers returning from war started families, resulting in a large generation of baby boomers who would shape American society in the coming decades.
   
3. Cold War and the Red Scare: The 1950s was characterized by the ongoing Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. The fear of communism and Soviet influence in the United States led to the Red Scare, with Senator Joseph McCarthy leading investigations and hearings to root out suspected communists and alleged subversives in various industries.
   
4. Civil Rights Movement: The 1950s laid the groundwork for the Civil Rights Movement that would gain momentum in the following decade. Important events included the landmark Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which ruled racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, and the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956), sparked by Rosa Parks' refusal to give up her seat on a bus.
   
5. Suburbanization and the Interstate Highway System: The post-war era saw a significant shift towards suburban living. The GI Bill provided home loans to veterans, enabling them to buy homes in newly developed suburbs. The construction of the Interstate Highway System, initiated in 1956, facilitated suburban growth and interstate travel.
   
6. Rock 'n' Roll and Popular Culture: The 1950s witnessed the rise of rock 'n' roll music, spearheaded by artists like Elvis Presley, Chuck Berry, and Little Richard. This music genre became an integral part of American youth culture and contributed to the emergence of a distinctive teenage identity.
   
7. Television and Mass Media: The 1950s was a transformative decade for television. It became a dominant form of entertainment, bringing families together around the TV set for shows like "I Love Lucy," "The Ed Sullivan Show," and "The Twilight Zone." The influence of television on American culture and politics grew significantly during this time.
   
8. Space Race and Technological Advancements: The 1950s saw the beginning of the Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union. The launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik in 1957 marked the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth, prompting the U.S. to accelerate its own space program.
   
9. McCarthyism and Censorship: The Red Scare and fear of communism also led to censorship in various forms of media, including films, literature, and music. The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) investigated alleged communist influences in Hollywood and the entertainment industry.
   
10. Women's Roles and Family Life: The 1950s reinforced traditional gender roles, with many women expected to focus on domestic duties and raising children. The idealized image of the nuclear family and the "Leave It to Beaver" lifestyle were commonly portrayed in popular media.
    

Overall, the 1950s in America was a decade of optimism and growth, but it was also a time of tension, particularly concerning civil rights and the escalating Cold War. The era's social and cultural changes laid the foundation for the transformative events of the following decades.

The 1960s in America was a tumultuous and transformative decade that witnessed significant social, political, and cultural changes. It was a period of intense activism, protests, and movements that challenged the status quo and shaped the future of the nation. Here's an overview of the history of the 1960s in America:

1. Civil Rights Movement: The Civil Rights Movement, which gained momentum in the 1960s, aimed to end racial segregation and secure equal rights and opportunities for African Americans. Key events included the sit-ins, freedom rides, and marches, such as the March on Washington in 1963, where Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his iconic "I Have a Dream" speech. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were landmark pieces of legislation that helped dismantle segregation and protect voting rights.
   
2. Assassinations: The 1960s witnessed the assassinations of several prominent leaders. In 1963, President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. Civil rights leader Malcolm X was assassinated in 1965, and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in 1968. These tragic events had a profound impact on the nation and deepened the sense of turmoil and unrest.
   
3. Vietnam War: The United States became increasingly involved in the Vietnam War during the 1960s. The conflict was highly controversial, and opposition to the war grew steadily. Anti-war protests and demonstrations became a significant part of the era's social and political landscape, culminating in large-scale protests such as the Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam in 1969.
   
4. Counterculture and Hippie Movement: The 1960s saw the rise of the counterculture and the hippie movement. Many young people rejected mainstream society's values and embraced a lifestyle that celebrated peace, love, and communal living. The Woodstock Music and Art Fair in 1969 became a symbol of the counterculture movement.
   
5. Women's Liberation Movement: The feminist movement gained momentum in the 1960s, advocating for gender equality and challenging traditional gender roles. The publication of Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" in 1963 played a pivotal role in sparking conversations about women's rights and led to the formation of various feminist organizations.
   
6. Space Race and Moon Landing: The space race continued through the 1960s, with both the United States and the Soviet Union striving to achieve milestones in space exploration. In 1969, the U.S. achieved a significant victory when Apollo 11 successfully landed on the moon, with astronaut Neil Armstrong becoming the first person to walk on its surface.
   
7. Youth Movement and Free Speech: The 1960s saw a surge in youth activism and a demand for greater political participation. Students on college campuses across the country protested against issues such as the war, racial injustice, and restrictions on free speech.
   
8. Music and Cultural Influence: The 1960s was a decade of musical innovation and cultural influence. Iconic musicians and bands, including The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, Bob Dylan, and Jimi Hendrix, shaped the music scene and influenced the era's social and political attitudes.
   
9. Civil Unrest and Urban Riots: The 1960s saw several incidents of civil unrest and urban riots in response to racial tensions and social inequalities. Major riots occurred in cities like Watts, Los Angeles (1965), and Detroit (1967), leading to significant destruction and loss of life.
   
10. Environmental Awareness: The 1960s also saw the beginnings of the modern environmental movement, with growing concerns about pollution and conservation. Rachel Carson's book "Silent Spring" (1962) brought attention to the harmful effects of pesticides, leading to increased awareness about environmental issues.
    

The 1960s was a decade of hope, activism, and social change, but it was also a time of deep divisions and conflict. The legacies of the movements and events of this era continue to shape American society and culture to this day.

The 1970s in America was a decade of contrasts, marked by both progress and challenges. It was a period of continued social change, economic shifts, political upheavals, and cultural shifts. Here's an overview of the history of the 1970s in America:

1. Vietnam War and Anti-War Movement: The Vietnam War continued to be a divisive issue throughout the early 1970s. The anti-war movement gained strength, and public opposition to the war grew significantly. In 1973, the Paris Peace Accords were signed, leading to the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam and the eventual fall of Saigon in 1975.
   
2. Watergate Scandal: The Watergate scandal, which came to light in the early 1970s, was a political crisis that deeply shook the nation's trust in the government. The scandal involved illegal activities, including burglary and surveillance, orchestrated by members of President Richard Nixon's administration. In 1974, Nixon resigned from office to avoid impeachment, making him the first U.S. president to do so.
   
3. Women's Rights and Equal Rights Amendment: The women's liberation movement continued to gain momentum in the 1970s. The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which sought to guarantee equal rights under the law regardless of sex, was passed by Congress in 1972 and sent to the states for ratification. However, it fell short of the required number of ratifications to become an amendment.
   
4. Environmental Movement: The environmental movement continued to grow in the 1970s, with concerns about pollution, conservation, and the impact of human activity on the planet. Earth Day, first observed in 1970, became an annual event promoting environmental awareness and action.
   
5. Energy Crisis: The 1970s witnessed an energy crisis, characterized by oil shortages and rising fuel prices. The Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) imposed an oil embargo in 1973, leading to fuel shortages and economic challenges in the United States and other oil-importing countries.
   
6. Racial Tensions and Busing: Racial tensions persisted in the 1970s, with some school districts implementing busing policies to desegregate schools. The busing efforts faced resistance from some parents and communities, leading to protests and conflicts.
   
7. Cultural Trends: The 1970s was a decade of cultural diversity, with the emergence of various musical genres, including disco, punk rock, and hip-hop. Popular culture was influenced by movies like "Star Wars" (1977), the rise of video games, and the popularity of television shows like "Happy Days" and "Saturday Night Live."
   
8. Economic Stagnation and Inflation: The U.S. experienced economic challenges in the 1970s, characterized by stagnation and inflation, a phenomenon known as stagflation. This combination of high inflation and slow economic growth posed significant challenges for policymakers.
   
9. Roe v. Wade: In 1973, the landmark Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade established a woman's constitutional right to access safe and legal abortion. The ruling remains a highly contentious issue in American politics and society.
   
10. End of the Decade: The 1970s ended with a sense of hope as the nation prepared to enter a new decade. In 1979, the United States established diplomatic relations with China, signaling a significant shift in foreign policy. The decade closed with a growing sense of optimism, despite the many challenges that still lay ahead.
    

Overall, the 1970s in America was a complex period of change and transition, with its impact felt on politics, culture, and society. The events and developments of the decade set the stage for the transformations and debates that would continue to shape the nation in the years to come.

​The 1980s in America was a decade of economic prosperity, political shifts, technological advancements, and cultural changes. It was a time of contrasts, with both optimism and challenges. Here's an overview of the history of the 1980s in America:

1. Reagan Era and Conservative Resurgence: The 1980s began with the election of Ronald Reagan as the 40th President of the United States in 1981. Reagan's conservative policies focused on reducing government regulation, cutting taxes, and increasing military spending. This era saw a resurgence of conservative values and a shift in political priorities.
2. Economic Boom: The 1980s witnessed a period of economic growth and prosperity, often referred to as the "Reagan Boom." The combination of tax cuts, reduced inflation, and increased consumer spending contributed to the growth of the economy.
3. Cold War and the Arms Race: The Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union continued throughout the 1980s. There was a significant increase in military spending, and the two superpowers engaged in a costly arms race. Reagan's administration pursued a policy of "peace through strength" to counter Soviet influence.
4. Technology and Information Age: The 1980s saw a rapid advancement in technology and the emergence of the Information Age. Personal computers became more accessible to the general public, and companies like Apple and Microsoft played pivotal roles in shaping the tech industry.
5. Space Exploration: The space program continued to make strides in the 1980s. The space shuttle program, initiated in 1981, allowed for reusable spacecraft and more frequent missions, including the launch and repair of the Hubble Space Telescope in 1990.
6. War on Drugs: The 1980s saw the launch of the "War on Drugs" campaign, aimed at reducing drug abuse and trafficking. Policies such as mandatory minimum sentences for drug offenses led to a significant increase in the U.S. prison population.
7. HIV/AIDS Epidemic: The 1980s saw the emergence of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, which led to widespread fear and stigma. The virus disproportionately affected the gay community, and the response from the government and medical community was initially slow and inadequate.
8. MTV and Pop Culture: The 1980s was a decade of pop culture icons and trends. The launch of MTV (Music Television) in 1981 revolutionized the music industry, making music videos an essential part of an artist's marketing strategy.
9. Challenger Disaster: In 1986, the space shuttle Challenger tragically exploded 73 seconds after liftoff, resulting in the loss of all seven crew members. The incident led to a temporary suspension of the space shuttle program and raised concerns about the safety of space missions.
10. End of the Decade: The 1980s closed with a sense of optimism and progress, but also lingering issues, such as the national debt and ongoing tensions with the Soviet Union. The decade set the stage for the major transformations that would occur in the following decades.

The 1980s in America was a decade of change, with its impact felt on politics, economy, technology, and culture. The legacies of the 1980s continue to influence American society and shape the nation's trajectory in the modern era.

The 1990s in America was a decade of significant cultural, technological, and political shifts. It was marked by both prosperity and challenges, shaping the modern era in many ways. Here's an overview of the history of the 1990s in America:

1. End of the Cold War: The 1990s began with the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 symbolized the end of the ideological struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union, ushering in a new era of geopolitical dynamics.
   
2. Gulf War: In 1991, the United States led a coalition of nations in a military operation known as the Gulf War, following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. The conflict resulted in the liberation of Kuwait but left Saddam Hussein's regime in power in Iraq.
   
3. Economic Boom: The 1990s witnessed a period of robust economic growth and low inflation, leading to the term "The Roaring Nineties." The growth was fueled by technological advancements, an expanding internet, and a flourishing stock market.
   
4. Technological Advancements: The 1990s saw a rapid growth in technology, with the advent of the World Wide Web. The development of the internet revolutionized communication and information sharing, transforming how people lived and worked.
   
5. Dot-com Bubble: The proliferation of internet-based companies led to a speculative bubble in the stock market, known as the "dot-com bubble." Many internet companies experienced meteoric rises in stock prices but ultimately faced a crash in 2000.
   
6. Rise of the Personal Computer: The 1990s saw a surge in personal computer usage as technology became more affordable and accessible to the general public. Companies like Microsoft and Apple played pivotal roles in popularizing personal computing.
   
7. Cultural Phenomena: The 1990s was a decade of cultural phenomena, including popular television shows like "Friends," "The X-Files," and "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air." Grunge music emerged as a major music genre, led by bands like Nirvana and Pearl Jam.
   
8. Clinton Presidency: Bill Clinton served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. His presidency was marked by economic prosperity, welfare reform, and foreign policy achievements like the Oslo Accords and the Dayton Agreement.
   
9. Crime and Legislation: The 1990s saw a decline in crime rates, but public concern about crime remained high. The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, signed by President Clinton, addressed crime and implemented measures such as the "three-strikes" rule.
   
10. Environmental Awareness: Environmental concerns continued to grow in the 1990s, with discussions on climate change and the need for sustainable practices becoming more prominent.
    
11. NAFTA and Globalization: In 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was signed, promoting trade and economic cooperation between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. The agreement aimed to create a North American trading bloc.
    
12. Impeachment of President Clinton: In 1998, President Clinton faced impeachment by the House of Representatives on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice related to his affair with a White House intern, Monica Lewinsky. The Senate acquitted him, allowing him to complete his second term in office.
    

The 1990s in America was a transformative decade, shaped by technological innovations, political events, and cultural trends. It set the stage for the new millennium and laid the foundation for the changes and challenges that would follow in the 21st century.

The 2000s in America was a decade marked by significant events, ranging from political shifts and technological advancements to moments of tragedy and triumph. Here's an overview of the history of the 2000s in America:

1. 2000 Presidential Election: The decade began with a controversial presidential election in 2000. The race between George W. Bush and Al Gore came down to a contested vote count in Florida. The Supreme Court's ruling in Bush v. Gore ended the recount and resulted in Bush's victory.
   
2. September 11, 2001: The most significant event of the decade was the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Nineteen hijackers affiliated with al-Qaeda carried out coordinated attacks, hijacking four planes and crashing them into the World Trade Center towers in New York City, the Pentagon in Virginia, and a field in Pennsylvania. Nearly 3,000 people lost their lives, and the attacks led to a major shift in U.S. foreign policy, including the launch of the War on Terror.
   
3. War on Terror: In response to the 9/11 attacks, the United States launched the War on Terror, initiating military actions in Afghanistan to dismantle al-Qaeda and overthrow the Taliban regime. In 2003, the U.S. invaded Iraq, toppling Saddam Hussein's government, but the conflict resulted in a prolonged insurgency.
   
4. Hurricane Katrina: In 2005, Hurricane Katrina devastated the Gulf Coast, particularly New Orleans. The storm's impact, coupled with the failure of the levee system, resulted in widespread flooding and loss of life. The response to the disaster exposed issues with emergency preparedness and response.
   
5. Technological Advancements: The 2000s saw significant technological advancements, particularly in the digital realm. The rise of social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter revolutionized communication and connectivity. Apple launched the iPhone in 2007, transforming the mobile phone industry.
   
6. Economic Recession: The late 2000s saw the global financial crisis of 2008, which originated in the United States with a subprime mortgage crisis. The crisis led to a severe economic recession, affecting financial markets and leading to a rise in unemployment and home foreclosures.
   
7. Barack Obama's Presidency: Barack Obama was elected as the 44th President of the United States in 2008, becoming the first African American to hold the office. His presidency was marked by efforts to address economic challenges, healthcare reform, and the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq.
   
8. Climate Change and Environmental Concerns: The 2000s saw increased awareness of climate change and its potential impact on the planet. Discussions about renewable energy and sustainable practices gained prominence.
   
9. Pop Culture and Media: The 2000s had a significant impact on pop culture and media. Reality TV shows gained popularity, and online streaming services started to reshape how people consumed media.
   

The 2000s in America was a decade of pivotal moments and rapid change. It witnessed a mix of triumphs and challenges, shaping the country's trajectory in the 21st century and setting the stage for the events and developments that would follow.

​The historical odyssey of England unfolds as a complex tapestry interwoven with myriad strands, tracing its genesis to prehistoric epochs and the Roman incursion of 43 AD. In its nascent stages, England bore witness to the amalgamation of disparate tribal entities, establishing a foundation marked by diverse cultural amalgamations. The post-Roman era, commencing in the 5th century, witnessed the ascendancy of Anglo-Saxon dominion, characterized by the proliferation of distinct kingdoms and the assimilation of Germanic influences.
A transformative watershed occurred with the Norman Conquest of 1066, instigating a paradigm shift through the introduction of feudalistic structures and a profound reconfiguration of the socio-political milieu. The ensuing medieval epoch witnessed the consolidation of monarchical authority, epitomized by the reign of the Plantagenet dynasty, alongside seminal events such as the Magna Carta in 1215, which laid the groundwork for constitutional precepts.
The 15th-century Wars of the Roses ushered in a tumultuous era of dynastic conflict, ultimately culminating in the ascendancy of the Tudors and the advent of the Renaissance. This epoch, characterized by the formidable reigns of Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, bore witness to England's burgeoning influence on the global stage.
The Stuart period of the 17th century engendered profound political upheaval, exemplified by the English Civil War and the subsequent establishment of a brief republic under the auspices of Oliver Cromwell. The restoration of the monarchy in 1660 marked a return to equilibrium, fostering the intellectual and cultural efflorescence of the Enlightenment.
The 18th century witnessed the zenith of England's imperial prowess, underscored by expansive colonial endeavors, burgeoning trade, and the inexorable march of industrialization. The Victorian era, spanning much of the 19th century, encapsulated the apogee of imperial power, accompanied by seismic social transformations and the initiation of parliamentary reforms.
The 20th century unfolded as a narrative punctuated by the crucible of global conflicts, economic vicissitudes, and the ebb of colonial hegemony. England's pivotal roles in both World War I and II, coupled with post-war reconstruction initiatives, solidified its status as a prominent global actor. The latter half of the century witnessed the waning of imperial dominion and the concurrent emergence of a multicultural societal fabric.
In the contemporary milieu, England grapples with the intricate dynamics of a post-colonial and post-industrial epoch, navigating complex challenges such as Brexit and recalibrating its global role. The historical odyssey of England stands as a testament to the indomitable spirit of its populace and the intricate interplay of forces that have indelibly shaped its destiny.

Introduction
Uganda, often called the “Pearl of Africa,” is a landlocked nation in East Africa known for its stunning landscapes, rich biodiversity, and vibrant cultures. From the shores of Lake Victoria to the snowcapped Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda’s geography has shaped its history, traditions, and way of life. Despite challenges, the Ugandan people have maintained strong cultural ties and a reputation for resilience.
The Start of Uganda
Uganda’s history traces back thousands of years, with evidence of early human settlement in the region. Over time, several kingdoms emerged, including Buganda, Bunyoro, Toro, and Ankole. The Buganda Kingdom, in particular, grew powerful due to its centralized governance, agriculture, and military strength. These kingdoms developed distinct social systems, with clan structures playing a central role in community life.
The name “Uganda” comes from “Buganda,” the largest and most influential kingdom in the region. The unity and conflicts between these kingdoms laid the foundation for Uganda’s cultural and political identity.
Colonial Era
European contact began in the mid-19th century, as explorers and missionaries arrived seeking trade and religious influence. The introduction of Christianity and Western education transformed many aspects of Ugandan society. In 1894, Uganda became a British protectorate, with colonial policies favoring certain kingdoms, especially Buganda, leading to long-term political tensions.
Uganda gained independence from Britain in 1962. However, the post-independence years were marked by political instability, including the brutal rule of Idi Amin (1971–1979) and subsequent conflicts. Despite these hardships, Uganda has worked toward rebuilding its institutions and economy in recent decades.
Traditions of Uganda
Uganda’s cultural identity remains deeply tied to its kingdoms, clans, and community values. Traditional rituals, ceremonies, and storytelling continue to shape Ugandan life, blending with Christian and Islamic practices introduced during colonial times.
Dance and Music
Music and dance are central to Ugandan traditions. Each ethnic group has its own unique styles, such as the Kiganda dance of the Baganda people and the Bwola dance of the Acholi. Traditional instruments include drums, adungus (harps), and xylophones, which accompany both communal celebrations and spiritual ceremonies.
Art and Crafts
Ugandans are skilled in creating handwoven baskets, mats, pottery, and wood carvings that reflect both practical use and cultural symbolism. Bark cloth, made from fig tree bark, is one of Uganda’s oldest art forms and is still used in cultural ceremonies today.
Navigation and Fishing
Uganda’s many lakes and rivers, especially Lake Victoria, have shaped livelihoods for centuries. Fishing is a major source of food and income, with Nile perch and tilapia being staples. Canoe-making and river navigation are important skills passed down through generations, linking Ugandans to their waterways.
Challenges and Modern Developments
Uganda faces challenges such as poverty, political instability, and the pressures of rapid population growth. Additionally, environmental issues like deforestation and climate change threaten its ecosystems. However, Uganda has made strides in education, health care, and economic development, with agriculture, tourism, and oil exploration contributing to progress.
Uganda Today
Uganda stands as a nation of cultural diversity and resilience. From its ancient kingdoms to its modern efforts in development, the country reflects both its deep traditions and its hopes for the future. With its natural beauty, artistic heritage, and resourceful people, Uganda continues to embody the spirit of a nation rebuilding and advancing while honoring its roots.

Introduction
Bangladesh, a South Asian nation bordered by India, Myanmar, and the Bay of Bengal, is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. Despite its small land area, Bangladesh boasts a rich cultural heritage, a deep history of resilience, and a rapidly growing economy. Its traditions, languages, and arts continue to reflect the strength and adaptability of its people.
The Start of Bangladesh
The history of Bangladesh traces back thousands of years, with the Bengal region serving as a crossroads for civilizations. Ancient Bengal was home to powerful kingdoms such as the Maurya and Gupta empires, followed by the Buddhist Pala dynasty and the Hindu Sena rulers. The arrival of Muslim traders and later the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century introduced Islam, which deeply shaped the region’s cultural and religious identity.
The name “Bangladesh” translates to “Land of Bengal,” highlighting the significance of Bengali ethnicity and language. Bengali culture became a defining factor throughout the centuries, uniting the people despite shifting rulers and influences.
Colonial Era
European traders, particularly the Portuguese and British, made contact with Bengal by the 16th century. The British East India Company gained control after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, marking the beginning of British colonial rule. Bengal became a vital economic hub for the British, known for its jute, textiles, and agriculture.
In 1947, with the partition of India, Bengal was split along religious lines. The eastern part became East Pakistan, while the western region became part of India. Political and cultural tensions quickly rose between West Pakistan and East Pakistan, fueled by linguistic and economic disparities. After years of struggle, Bangladesh achieved independence in 1971 following a devastating war of liberation.
Traditions of Bangladesh
Bangladesh has preserved its cultural identity through language, arts, and communal traditions. The Bengali New Year, Pohela Boishakh, and the International Mother Language Day (February 21) are celebrated nationwide, reflecting pride in the Bengali language and heritage.
Dance and Music
Traditional music, such as Baul songs, reflect spirituality and folk traditions. Rabindra Sangeet, songs composed by Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore, hold a special place in national identity. Classical and folk dances, often performed during festivals and weddings, embody themes of love, devotion, and daily life.
Art and Crafts
Bangladesh is known for its rich textile heritage, particularly Jamdani saris and Nakshi Kantha embroidery, which blend practicality with artistic expression. Handwoven crafts, pottery, and rickshaw art also reflect the creativity and storytelling traditions of the Bengali people.
Navigation and Fishing
The rivers of Bangladesh, including the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna, have always played a central role in daily life. Traditional boat-making and river navigation remain essential in rural areas, while fishing continues to be a major livelihood. Hilsa fish, the national fish of Bangladesh, holds both economic and cultural significance.
Challenges and Modern Developments
Bangladesh faces major challenges from climate change, particularly flooding and rising sea levels due to its low-lying geography. Poverty, overpopulation, and infrastructure remain concerns, but the nation has made significant progress in recent decades. Bangladesh is now recognized for its booming textile industry, microfinance innovations, and contributions to peacekeeping missions worldwide.
Bangladesh Today
Bangladesh’s story is one of resilience, culture, and determination. From its ancient civilizations to its hard-fought independence, and from its artistic traditions to modern economic growth, Bangladesh continues to shape its future while honoring its past. Through its emphasis on community, language, and creativity, Bangladesh stands as a testament to the enduring strength of the Bengali people.

Italy is a nation located in Southern Europe on The Mediterranean Sea bordering France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia and The Holy See. The Capital of Italy is Rome and The Population of Italy is 60,553,000 circa 2020. The Native Language of Italy is Italian which comes from Latin, the original native language of Italy. The most practiced religion in Italy is Roman Catholicism with 83 percent of Italians claiming to be Roman Catholic in 2005; 14 percent of Italians are Atheist/non-religious, 2 percent practice Islam and 1 percent declare other in the same year reported.  The currency of Italy is The Euro. Italy has a Gross Domestic Product of 1.88 Trillion USD circa 2020. Italy's government is a Unitary State Constitution Parliamentary Republic, kind of a return to Roman Tradition. 

The Start of Italy and its place in Today's World would have to start in a time before its creation. That would Rome before it was The Capital of Italy, was The Superpower of The World. Controlling about all of the Mediterranean and beyond stretching from The British Isles to Egypt and from Spain all the way to Anatolia. Rome is located in The Italian Peninsula and its expanded started with the conquering of this Peninsula. This Peninsula in the Mediterranean Sea is what is Today known as Italy.

IN 476 A.D., The Roman Empire fell due to political instability and invasion of Germanic tribes known to The Romans as Barbarians. This collapse started what would be know as The Dark Ages, The Middle Ages or The Medieval era. This was a time of Medieval Kings or other such royalty, rallying and warring over the land that was once part of The Roman Empire and the surrounding areas of modern-day Europe. Monarchy and Religious extremism ruled Medieval Europe and the light of knowledge would not belong to the people till a thousand years later when The Renaissance would begin in the same place where that light ended, Italy.  

The Kingdom of Italy, also known as The Ostrogothic Kingdom was founded in 493 A.D.  by The Germanic Ostrogoths with The First King of Italy, Flavius Odoacer. Flavius Odoacer was born in Pannonia, The Roman Empire (modern day Austria), in 431 A.D. Flavius became The First King of Italy in 476 A.D. when he toppled The Emperor of The Roman Empire Romulus Augustus and dissolved The Western Roman Empire, establishing The Kingdom of Italy. King Odoacer would be a client of The Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno but still be The Power of The Kingdom of Italy. Rex Odoacer would reign as The Rex of Italy until 493 A.D. when he when Theodoric had him killed after many campaigns of battle. Theodoric was promised the crown of the Italian peninsula by Emperor Zeno and in 493, The King of Ostrogoths would became The Second King of Italy, Theodoric The Great. The Capital of The Kingdom of Italy was Ravenna till 540 A.D. 

King Teja, also known as Teia, Thila, Theia, Thela or Teias, was The Last King of Italy. King Teja would reign as King of Italy till 552 AD after being killed in The Battle of Mons Lactarius; where he would lead a fleet to kill all Roman Senators as an act of revenge for a defeat earlier at Battle of Taginee where King Totila, the king of Italy before him was killed. He also ordered the slaughter of about 300 Roman Kids that were hostages of the previous King. After creating a deal with The Franks in Pavia, he fled to Southern Italy with the support of several military leaders who were under the previous King of Italy, Totila. When he and his army made it to Mount Vesuvius, King Teja was killed in battle at what is known as The Cataclysmic showdown where The Ostrogoths were defeated by The Romans. After the fall of The Final King of Italy, The Ostrogoth people assimilated into boarder Italian Culture and faded into insignificance. The End of The Kingdom of Italy.

IN 535 AD Roman General Justinian  declares that all of Italy is a part of The Eastern Roman Empire. This start a war known as The Gothic War, which is fought between The Roman Empire and The Kingdom of Italy until 554 AD where King Teja is killed. This would remain until 568 AD, when the Lombards would invade and take over much of Italy. The Romans would ruled The Ravenna province of Italy while The Lombards who control the Pavia province. The Lombards were a northwestern Germany Germanic tribe. The Lombard's were able to win Italy from The Romans due to it being left defenseless by The Romans after their win against The Kingdom of Italy. In fact, in 569 AD, they crossed over The Julian Alps into northern Italy unopposed by the inattentive Romans. They would capture Pavia in 572 AD. The Lombard Kingdom of Italy would reign until 774 AD. when The Pope, Pope Adrian The First, asked for help from The Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne, just a Frankish King at the time,  to take down The Lombards invasion of The Papal States. Charlemagne's army would defeat The Lombard's in The Pavia siege in 773 that lasted one year, which would end the reign of The Lombard Kingdom of Italy. The Lombard's name would remain in Italy till this day in the region of Lombardy. 

In 800 AD, Charlemagne would be crowned, King Charlemagne, The First King of The Holy Roman Empire, or The Carolingian Empire. Northern and Central Italy would be in the territory of The Holy Roman Empire. Until the 9th century where the Carolingian Empire would disband, The Holy Roman Empire would continue on however, which will leave behind several Italian States which would rival each other for power and territory. 

After this point, all of the action occurs in Southern Italy and The Island of Sicily. In the 11th century, both Southern Italy and Sicily would be control and colonized by The Normans, a Nordic/viking peoples from Northern France in a region which is known today as Normandy. 

This would kick off a power struggle called for by The Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII which would start a 200 year conflict in Italy which would end in a Pope Victory in 1250 AD. 

96 years later, in 1346, a catastrophic event would begin which would change The World forever. Coming from East and/Or Central Asia; The Black Death, also known as The Black Plague or The Bubonic Plaque would ravage Europe and North Africa beginning in Italy and Sicily.  For 7 years, Italy and all of Europe was ravaged by this apocalyptic disease. Religious Zealots claimed it to be a punishment from god and many would whip themselves to atone for sins committed by people who lived in the most religious time period in history, very logical. In the 7 year span of The Black Death 25 million people met their expiration at the hands of the Bubonic Plaque. Through the implementation of quarantines, the plaques grip on Italy and the rest of Europe would cease to hold. This plaque may have brought death and destruction, but in it's wake, the course of history of Italy and The World, would change forever. 

Beginning in Florence, Italy around 1300 AD, The Renaissance would be the rebirth (Renaissance means Rebirth in French) of excellence in the arts and sciences for those in the European continent, that was lost when Rome fell almost a millennium earlier. With this new era, The Medieval Times had ended and a new chapter in history would begin, one of many goods and one of many evils. The Renaissance can best be describes as The Rise in European interest in The Classical World's Philosophy, Political Structures, Arts, Ideas, etc. This led to a brand new ideology/philosophy, that was based on Secular Values as opposed to The Scholastic Religious Values on The Medieval Church, known as Humanism. According to the fourth definition presented by The Oxford Dictionary as of 2021, Humanism is "Devotion to those studies which promote human culture; literary culture; esp. the system of the Humanists, the study of the Roman and Greek classics which came into vogue at the Renascence."[sic] and the second definition being  "The character or quality of being human; devotion to human interests". This new ideology would put more focus on the human and the material world rather than that of the metaphysical; which would bring about new technologies and better knowledge of The World which would advance humans beyond what those who lived in The Medieval Era would have ever thought possible without Magic. The Renaissance would bring about some of the most famous artist of all time which included Michelangelo, Leonardo Da Vinci, Donatello, Raphael and Giovanni Bellini. Michelangelo would create art such as The Creation Adam, The Sistine Chapel ceiling and The Statue of David; Leonardo Da Vinci would create The Mona Lisa, The Last Supper and The Vitruvian Man; Donatello would create art such as Saint Mark, The Feast of Herod and Cantoria; Raphael would create art such as The School of Athens, Transfiguration and The Disputation of The Holy Sacrament; and Giovanni Bellini woudl create art such as The Feast of The Gods, Christ Blessing and Agony in The Garden. 

One of the most famous part of The Renaissance in Italy, is the Medici Family. The Medici family would bring about the high point of The Renaissance. The Medici Family would reign over the city of Florence, Italy most of the Renaissance. Their contributions to The Arts and Humanism with the money made from being bankers and wool merchants would help fund the Renaissance to be as impactful as it was. The order to Renaissance given by the rule of The Medici's would start to fall apart in 1495, when The King of France Charles The Seventh, would invade Italy and push the Medici family from Florence. In 1503, The Center of The Renaissance is moved from Florence, Italy to Rome, Italy; Rome is once again, The Center of The World. In 1527, The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V would sack Rome which would lead to Venice, Italy becoming the center of art. In 1527, The Renaissance would end due to primarily The Protestant Reformation causing conflict in Europe which would see funds given to war efforts as opposed to the arts. 

After The Sacking of Rome, The Medici Family was expelled from rule in Florence and in 1528 The French General Odet de Foix Lautrec's army would arrive in Rome to establish control of the peninsula. However, The Aristocrat Admiral Andrea Doria would double-cross The French, which he once was under the service of, in service of The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. A Plaque would take The Aloha from Odet de Foix Lautrec which would destroy most of the French Army, forcing The Pope in 1529 to sign The Treaty of Barcelona, giving Spain control over Italy after 40 years of war. In 1530, The Pope would crown Charles V The King of Italy. In exchange for The Medici's being given back control over Florence, The Pope promised to address the protestant reformation and reform for the church. The Spanish would reinstate The Medici family as the rulers of Florence. 
In 1530, Spain would establish complete control of Italy, besides Venice. Most Italian states would remain Independent however, with the exceptions of Sicily, Naples, Milan and Sardinia. Even with the declared control of Italy by Spain, French and Spanish conflict over the rule of Italy would still persist until April 3rd, 1559; where The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis would be agreed upon. This agreement would end a 65 year conflict between the two roaring nations over who would control Italy. Hapsburg Spain would now officially dominate Italy for 150 years. 

IN 1700, The Last Spanish Hapsburg Charles II, would die. This would begin state relations between Italy, Austria, The Spanish Bourbons and The Independent States. This would lead to Austria to become the main power over Italy. This would persist until 1796, when Napoleon invades Italy and establish the Ligurian Republic in 1797 in Genoa, Italy. In 1805, The Ligurian Republic would be incorporated into The French Empire. Italy seemed to be doomed to be ruled as a French state forever, until 1814, when French control over Italy would be overthrown, and a series events that would lead to The Unification of Italy would begin. 

In 1815, The Congress of Vienna, an International Diplomatic Conference meant to restore European Political Order after the fall of The Napoleonic Empire, would establish the boundaries of The European Nations. Venice, Italy is given to Austria in 1815.  

Fascism was an ideology invented by Benito Mussolini in 1915. This ideology was forwarded by Mussolini to conquer Italy and make Mussolini the dictator of Italy. Mussolini's main goal was to reestablish the fallen Roman Empire to its former glory. He did this with conquest of former Roman Empire land such as Ethiopia. He would later join Adolf Hitler as allies in the axis powers in World War 2. The Italian People would eventually hung Mussolini and join the allied powers to defeat Nazi Germany and win WWII in Europe. 

Today's Italy Capital is Rome and boosts a population of 59.55 Million (2020). Today, Italy is a Unitary State, Parliamentary Constitutional Republic.Today's Italy economy is a diversified industrial economy. The current Leader of Italy is Prime Minister Mario Draghi (2021).

The Trojan War was a Super Awesome Powerful Legendary War between The Trojans of Troja(Troy) and The Classical World (Greeks). The Classical World Won The War with the Trojan Horse. The Warriors of The Classical World hid inside The Trojan Horse which was a giant wooden horse that acted as a surrendering gift to The Trojans. The Trojans did not think twice about bringing this ‘gift’ into their city walls of Troja. That night, The Trojans threw a Party and become quite intoxicated. When the time was right, The Classical World Warriors came out of The Trojan Horse and laid siege to Troja. The Classical World claimed Victory in The Trojan War. Not all Trojans were slaughtered however and escaped from the ruins of their once great city. The fleeing Trojans (outlined in The Aeneid) would eventually make their way to the land of Latium. This land in Italy would one day be called Rome!

The Founding of Rome cannot be told without the Legendary story of how it was founded. The Story of Romulus and Remus. Alba Longa, a kingdom in Italy, had a King. King Numiton is The Grandfather of who would be the founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus.
Numiton had a brother named Amuliud. Amuliud was jealous and wanted to take Numiton's place as King of Alba Longa. Amuliud slains Numiton and his son then kidnaps Numiton's daughter Rhea Silvia. In order to stop any legitimate opposition for the throne, Amuliud forces Rhea Silvia to become a vestal virgin & unless you are Holy Mary, thou need to have coutius in order to beget children. However, this would not stop the fate of Amuliud's demise for The Roman god Mars, The Roman god of War, has relations with Rhea Silvia and conceives and gives birth to twin brothers Romulus and Remus. Hearing of this birth, Amuliud sends his servant to cast them into the river and to drown them. His servant however cannot bring himself to commit this infanticide. Instead his servant puts the twin brothers into a basket and send them down the stream. When the carriage finally ceases to stream, the baby brothers land on what would eventually become The City of Rome.
Thence a she-wolf discovered them two boys and weens them and takes care of them for a time being; raising them as fellow wolves. Later on a herdsmen named Faustulus and his wife Acca Larentia. Romulus and Remus are thence brought up as shepherds.
Romulus and Remus, Naturally, become Adults and come to learn of a corral The Loyalist of Amuliud and The Loyalist of Numiton. During this corral they learn of their true origins and that Numiton was their Father. The most important thing they learn though, is that they were destined to become Kings! With the passion of a lion stalking its prey, Romulus and Remus Join The loyalist of their late father Numiton. They then end up slaughtering and overthrowing Amuliud and avenge their Father. The vengeance was sweet as a cherry pie in mid-spring with a cool breeze flowing through thy hair.
With that they establish as new kingdom set where the she-wolf discovered and nursed them as infants. This kingdom will become Rome. There was dispute on who owned what and where the kingdom was to be placed. The two split their kingdoms with Remus's land on Mount Remus and Romulus on Palatine Hill. In the end, they both knew that one would become sole sovereign of The Kingdom. Remus was the first to see birds fly over head which made him to claim control over all the lands. However, Romulus saw twofold the amount of birds(12) that Remus saw, so he claimed to own all the land. Romulus built a wall around his territory to keep out invaders. Remus laughed and mocked this wall saying that it could not keep invaders from crossing into his lands. Remus then proceeded to jump back and forth across the wall, mocking Romulus. In a fit of rage, Romulus slaughtered his brother and become The Sole ruler of The Kingdom of Rome.

Romulus, What Hast thou done? Thou hast slain thy brother. Thou hast Cain thy Abel. His blood flows through thy kingdom and his vengeance shalt be dealt to thee. For yay, thy land shalt be great indeed, but with thy brother's slaughter, thou Kingdom wilt never stretch across The World nor will it last forever. For it is doomed to only last a millennium. For thy legacy and Father's Legacy, Mars, shalt be taken and given to a different son of God and God. Rome shalt last, but thine Rome shalt Fall. 

Rome would be established on April 21st, 753 B.C. This day would known as Parilia. With the murder of his brother Remus, Romulus would become The First King of Rome, The Rex of Roma. He declared himself The King of Rome after killing his brother Remus. In The Early days of The Roman Kingdom, any man could join the ranks as citizen. Naturally this brought in a significant portion of outlaw men into its citizenry. But as is all to well known, without a future generation to pass the torch down too, the future of the civilization will be non-existent. And of course, it takes two to tango. With a population of just men and no women, reproducing could not occur. To help bring in wives for his men to reproduce with, Romulus Rex tried to negotiate with The Sabine peoples to offers some of their women in order for The Roman Kingdom to survive into future generations. The negotiations fell flat however & The Sabine people refused to give their women to The Romans. Naturally, this would not work for the Romans, so Action must be taken to prevent The Extinction of Roma. During The Festival of Neptune Equester, The Roman Men kidnapped The Sabine Women and fought off The Sabine men's attempt to stop The Roman abduction of their women. This attempt by The Sabine men was unsuccessful however and The Superior Romans took The Sabine Women as Wives. This event was known as The Rape of The Sabine Women. A War broke out against The Romans and The Sabines with other Italian Tribes. The First battle was fought when The Caeninenses invaded Roman territory. Big mistake however, for Romulus and his men slaughtered The Caeninenses King. The Sabines later on would Officially declare War on The Kingdom of Rome. Because of the traitor Tarpeia, The daughter of Spurius Tarpeius, The Sabines and their King Titus Tatius was about to enter The walls of Rome and capturing it. The Sabines were dead set on killing every last Roman with no mercy. Romulus rallied The Romans to counter attack the Sabine advance and pin them at the gate of The Palatium. The Wives of The Romans, The Captured Sabine Women, got in the way and pleaded for their husbands and their former folk to cease the fighting. 

The Kingdom of Rome lasted from 753 B.C. with The First King of Rome, Romulus to 509 B.C. He reigned till his day of passing in 716 B.C. at the Age of 56. It is legend that he was swept away by a whirlwind from a colossal brutal storm. In this storm he told to have ascended into Heaven to join his Father, The Roman god of War, Mars.
Romulus Rex's successor was The Second King of Rome and his Brother-in-Law, Numa Pompilius. Numa Pompilius took the throne in 715 B.C. when he was elected to be Rex by The Curiate Assembly. Rex Numa Pompilius was from The Sabine Region of The Italian Peninsula. Rex Numa Pompilius was accredited to many important things for Roma including The Roman Calendar, The Cult of Jupiter, The Cult of Mars, The Cult of Romulus, The Vestal Virgins and the religious office of Pontifex Maximus. The Roman Calendar was The official calendar used by The Roman Kingdom and later Roman Republic which would later be reformed in The First Century B.C. by Julius Caesar becoming The Julian Calendar which would be later reformed by The Catholic Church into the calendar we use in Today's World known as The Gregorian Calendar. The Roman Calendar was a ten month calendar which included the months: Menis Martius or March (Month of Mars), Menis Aprilis or April (Month of Apru or Aphrodite), Mensis Maius or May (Month of Maia), Mensis Iunius or June (Month of Juno), Mensis Quintilis or July Later on being named after Julius Caesar (Fifth Month), Mensis Sextilis or August later on being named after Augustus Caesar (Sixth Month), Mensis September or September in Today's World (Seventh Month), Mensis October or October in Today's World (Eight Month), Menis November or November in Today's World (Ninth Month) and Mensis December or December in Today's World (Tenth Month). The Length of a Year in The Roman Calendar is 304 Days vs The 365 Days in both The Julian Calendar and Gregorian Calendar which both hath leap years with 366 Days. Not much is known about The Cult of Jupiter, only member of the cult knew much of its practices and  beliefs. It is known however that members addressed Jupiter (Supreme Roman god) as Jupiter Optimus Maximus Dolichenus. Optimus Maximus is Latin for "Best and Greatest". Not much is known of the cult of Mars neither. Mars is known as the god of war so we can assume that war or battle had something to do with the practices of this cult. The Cult of Romulus was a following of The First King of Rome. This cult would later become a cult for The Sabine People known as The Cult of Quirinus. Vestal Virgins also known as just Vestals, were priestesses who worshiped Vesta, the goddess of the hearth. The hearth is the sacred fire which burned at the college of vestals which was responsible for the continuation of Rome. The Vestal Virgins were tasked with keeping the fire burning indefinitely, lest Rome fall. Numa Pompilius at first, refused to accept the throne as King of Rome, due to his belief that Rome was a nation of war and that a strong warrior leader should rule over Rome and command it's armies. He later accept the office of King by persuasion of his tutor and the father of Marcus, his son-in-law. The Second King of Roma, Numa Pompilius's reign would end in 673 B.C. where he would be succeeded by The Third King of Rome, Tullus Hostillius. If Numa Pompilius was a King of Peace and Romulus was a King of War, then Tullus Hostillius was a King of War sevenfold. Tullus Hostillius thought his predossesor was weak and therefore made The Roman Kingdom weak. Therefore the game of war was back on for Rome. Tullus Hostillius was known for The Battle of Alba Longa; a war that sought to defend the honor of Rome from The city of Alba Longa. The rules were that the last one standing would be declared victor. In the end Rome won. Though the city of Alba Longa still exists in Italy Today. Tullus Hostillius was such a War-hawk King, that he even started a war with The King of The Roman gods, Jupiter. Legends go that this is what led to the death of The Third King of Rome. Tullus Hostillius was the grandson of Hostus Hostilius, who during The Sabine Invasion of Rome, was killed in battle by The First King of Rome, Romulus Rex. Tullus Hostillius would end his reign when he died in 642 B.C. His succcesor would come to the throne in 642 B.C., The Fourth King of Rome, Ancus Marcius. Ancus Marcius was declared Interrex ,between kings, of Rome by The Roman Senate and would later be Crowned Fourth King of Rome in a session by The Assembly of The People. Ancus Marcius, later his predecessor and Romulus, would also be a King of War. His mother, Pompilia, was the daughter of The Second King of Rome, Numa Pompilius. The First Act as King of Rome for Ancus Marcius was the reenstate the religious edicts set forth byt The Second King of Rome, Numa Pompilius, which were removed by The Third King of Rome, Tullus Hostillius. Later on, The Native Latins would start a War with Rome to regain the lost territory The Roman Kingdom occupied in Latina. At the time, The Latin occupied The Aventine Hill which was one of the seven hills that form the territory of The City of Rome. Thinking that invasion would cause Ancus Marcius to fold and ask for diplomatic peace attacked The Roman Kingdom. This was a huge mistake, for Ancus Marcius was in fact, a King of War. This caused Ancus Marcius to declared War with The Latins, after the Latins refused to pay restitution money. Ancus Marcius would march into The Latinium City of Politorium, by storm and the Latins were removed from The City. Politorium would later be destroyed by The Romans. After the sacking and demolision of Politorium, The Roman would do the same to The Latinium Cities of Ficana and Tellenae. After that, the battle was set for The Latinium Town of Medullia. After many tries at the well fortified town, The Romans would eventually sack Medullia and bring home loot after the battle. After that Rome would take over the Latin town of Janiculum and make it a part of Rome and take in Latins as Roman Citizens. The great expansion of The Roman Kingdom would begin and the influence of The Tiber River was to The Romans. The Absolute Victory of The Trojans over The Latins was clear. At the age of 60, The Fourth King of Rome, Ancus Marcius would die of natural causes in 617 B.C. He left behind and bigger and more powerful Roman Kingdom. His successor would be The Fifth King of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, also known as Tarquin The Elder. His reign would mark the beginning of The Etruscan Dynasty in The Roman Kingdom. The Estrucans are from The Central Italian Region of Etruria which is modern day Tuscany, Umbrea and Lazio. Lucius waged a new war with The Latins, where he expanded Roman terriority even further. He first took the Latinium town of Apiolae, after Lucius conquered many other towns in Latinium bringing them into The Roman Kingdom. The Latins would eventually ask for support from The Sabines and The Estrucans but eventualy Rome would cease Total Victory over Latinium. After The Victory against Latinium, Lucius waged war against The Sabines. Even though The Sabines were great in battle, Lucius was able to stealthily attack the Sabine base at nightfall. He attacked using boats with flames pushed down the river catching The Sabine base on fire. While The Sabine military was busy trying to put out the fire to their camp, The Romans moved in and destroyed the Sabine Camp completely. Later in 585 B.C., The Sabines would lead an assault against The Roman Army but Lucius's troops would stand ground and declare victory on September 13th, 585 B.C. With this, The Latinium towns of Cameria, Old Ficulea, Meduilia, Nomentum, Corniculum and Ameriola would be conquered and brought into The Roman Kingdom. Later on Lucius would seek peace with The Estrucans, however they would declare war on Rome. The Estrucans would first capture The Roman Colony named Fidenae; which would become the central point in The Estrucan War. In the end however, Rome would have victory over the Estrucans and Rome would become greater due to the loot from The Estrucans. In 579 B.C. an assassination of Lucius was carried out by those who believed the successor of The throne should of been the son of The Fourth King of Rome, Ancus Marius. In a set-up riot, Lucius was assassinated with an ax to the skull. The Queen however, lied and said The Lucius was not dead, but merely wounded. She took advantage of the confusion and placed Servius Tullius as regent. Once it was established that Lucius was killed, Servius Tullius would become The Sixth King of Rome in 578 B.C. Servius Tullius Rex was most known for his reforms to The Roman Kingdom which expanded Roman Citizenship to lower class Romans and non-Romans. This made Servius Tullius a Popular King. He would reign for 44 years until he was assassinated in 535 B.C. by his daughter Tullia and his son-in-law Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. Lucius Tarquinius Superbus also known as Tarquin The Proud, would now take the throne and become The Seventh and Final King of Rome. To become King of Rome he lobbied the support of the patrician senators, especially those from families who had received their senatorial rank under Tarquin the Elder, his Grandfather and Fifth King of Rome. He gave them gifts and spread criticism of Servius Tullius Rex. Superbus Rex would eventually be dethroned by The Roman People in 509 B.C. and The Roman Republic would be created. The Etruscan oppression of The Romans was over.

Beginning in 509 BC after the fall of The Roman Kingdom by The Roman people overthrowing The Etruscan Dynasty. This happened due to The Final King of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, raping the noblewoman Lucretia who later committed suicide because of this violation of her. Lucius was then exiled by The Roman Senate led by the lobbying of Lucretia's father and  Superbus's nephew to Etruria. The Roman Senate then abolished The Roman Monarchy and The Roman Kingdom and thenceforth The Roman Republic was formed. The duties of the former office of King would be for a newly established consul of two who would be annually elected The Senate. The First Two Consuls in The Roman Republic were Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Collatinus. The control of The Roman Republic spanned across The whole Mediterranean World, with a cultures of The Romans, The Latins, The Estrucans, The Classical World (Greeks), The Sabine and The Octans. The name of The Roman Republic was Roma and Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR) which translates from Latin to The Roman Senate and People. The Capital of The Roman Republic was Rome. The Official Language of The Roman Republic was Classical Latin. Other Languages spoken in The Roman Republic included: Greek, Etruscan, Osco-Umbrian, Venetic, Ligurian, Rhaetian, Hebrew, Berber, Gaulish, Nuragic, Syriac, Sicel, Aramaic, Punic, Iberian, Coptic, Illyrian, Celtiberian, Lusitanian, Gallaecian and Aquitanian. The Official Religion of The Roman Republic was Roman Polytheism which borrowed much of its aspects from The Classical World Religion like their gods such as Zeus The King of The Classical World gods becoming Jupiter The King of The Roman gods, Aries The god of War becoming Mars The god of War and Hermes The Messenger god becoming Mercury. The type of government The Roman Republic was, was known as a Diarchic Republic meaning the leads were of two men with senators below wielding power over the nation. The Roman Republic would last until 27 B.C. and be replaced by The Roman Empire.

Julius Caesar, The Known Roman in The World, was known for his time as a Statesmen, A Roman General, High Priest and Roman Consul. Julius Caesar or Gaivs Ivlivs Cæsar or Gaius Julius Caesar,  was born in 100 B.C. in Rome, Italy, The Roman Republic. Julius Caesar was born into a Partician Family, family being Father Gaius Julius Caesar and Aurelia. Julius Caesar was believed to be the descendant of a Famous Trojan, Julus who was the grandson of The Roman goddess Venus. This claim to ancestry would lay the ground work for him becoming a Roman god himself after his demise. In Caesar's adolescent years, he was captured by pirates and was held for ransom. Upon hearing the amount of ransom demanded, Caesar felt insulted and demanded the pirates double the amount. They accepted this demand. While captive, Caesar was said to have been a friendly guy and provided voluntary entertainment for the pirates. Before the ransom was paid, Caesar gleefully told the pirates that he would return to find them then crucify all of them. He kept good on his promise too and everyone of the pirates would be executed by way of Crucifixion. Julius Caesar would later become General of 100 Legions then Marched on Rome and become Dictator of Rome. He would eventually be assassinated by Senators of The Ideas of March, March 15th, 44 B.C. 
The month of July is named after Julius Caesar. 

more details coming soon.

The Roman Empire Started in 27 B.C. after The Fall of The Roman Republic by The First Emperor of Rome, better known as The Princeps, Octavius Augustus Caesar. The Capital of The Roman Empire was Rome from 27 B.C. to 286 A.D. then in Mediolanum from 286 A.D. to 402 A.D. in The Western split of The Roman Empire then in Ravenna from 402 A.D. to 476 A.D. in The Western Roman Empire, this would be the final capital of The Roman Empire till The Fall of Rome in 476 A.D. The governance of The Roman Empire was an Absolute Monarchy who was elected by Roman Senators. The Official Language of The Roman Empire was Latin with other common languages being Greek and Aramaic. The Official Language of The Roman Empire was First The Imperial Cult driven Polytheism (Classical Roman Religion) till 274 A.D., then The Solar Cult known as Sol Invictus till 380 A.D., then finally Catholicism from 380 A.D. till the fall. 

The Julio-Claudian Dynasty
1. Augustus Caesar, originally known as Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was a pivotal figure in ancient Roman history, reigning as the first Roman Emperor from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD. He was born on September 23, 63 BC, into a prominent Roman family. Augustus is renowned for his role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire, marking the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Imperial era.Augustus rose to power following the assassination of his great-uncle and adoptive father, Julius Caesar, in 44 BC. He entered into a power struggle with Mark Antony, who was initially allied with him but later became a rival. The conflict culminated in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Augustus emerged victorious, securing his position as the undisputed ruler of Rome.
Once in power, Augustus implemented a series of reforms aimed at restoring stability and consolidating his authority. He established a new constitution, known as the "Principate," which preserved the appearance of a republic while concentrating power in his hands. He was given the title of "Princeps" (meaning "first citizen") and referred to as "Augustus," which means "revered" or "majestic," signifying his elevated status.
Augustus undertook a vast program of public works and infrastructure projects, such as the construction of roads, bridges, and aqueducts, which contributed to the prosperity of the Roman Empire. He also established a professional civil service, reformed the tax system, and maintained a standing army to defend the borders.
One of Augustus's most enduring legacies was the Pax Romana (Roman Peace), a period of relative peace and stability that lasted for much of his reign and facilitated cultural and economic growth throughout the empire. This period is often seen as a high point in Roman history.
Augustus was a patron of the arts and literature, promoting a revival of classical Roman culture. His reign saw the flourishing of literature and poetry, with notable authors like Virgil, Horace, and Livy producing significant works during this time.
Augustus Caesar died on August 19, 14 AD, at the age of 75. He was succeeded by his stepson and adopted son, Tiberius. Augustus's rule left an indelible mark on the Roman world, setting the stage for the long-lasting Roman Empire and shaping the course of Western history. His enduring influence is evident in the continued use of the title "Caesar" by subsequent Roman emperors and in the term "Augustus" itself, which has come to signify a revered and powerful ruler.
2. Tiberius Caesar, whose full name was Tiberius Julius Caesar, the second Roman emperor who ruled from 14 AD to 37 AD. He succeeded Augustus, the first Roman emperor, and played a significant role in shaping the early Roman Empire. Here is a summary of Tiberius Caesar's life and reign:Early Life: Tiberius was born on November 16, 42 BC, in Rome, to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. His early life was marked by political turmoil and uncertainty, as his family was involved in the complex power struggles of the late Roman Republic.
Military Career: Tiberius had a successful military career, gaining experience in various Roman provinces and demonstrating his military competence. He played a crucial role in the campaigns in Germania and Pannonia.
Accession to the Throne: After the death of his stepfather Augustus in 14 AD, Tiberius became the second Roman emperor. His accession marked the continuation of the Julio-Claudian dynasty's rule.
Reign as Emperor: Tiberius' reign was characterized by a complex mix of achievements and controversies. He was known for his administrative reforms, maintaining the stability and prosperity of the Roman Empire, and strengthening the Roman army. However, his rule was marred by suspicions of tyranny, political intrigue, and a perceived withdrawal from the public eye, as he spent much of his later years in self-imposed exile on the island of Capri.
Notable Events and Policies:

1. Tiberius initiated the practice of adopting heirs, known as the "Tiberian Succession," to ensure a smooth transition of power. This practice would be followed by many Roman emperors.
2. His reign witnessed the continuation of the Pax Romana, a period of relative peace and prosperity across the Roman Empire.
3. Tiberius faced numerous conspiracies and political trials during his rule, which led to a climate of fear and mistrust in the Roman elite.
4. The infamous trial and execution of prominent senators like Sejanus and the use of treason charges against political opponents tarnished his legacy.

Death and Succession: Tiberius died on March 16, 37 AD, and was succeeded by his grand-nephew Caligula, marking a transition in the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
Legacy: Tiberius Caesar's reign is a subject of historical debate. Some view him as a capable administrator who maintained Roman stability, while others criticize his autocratic tendencies and the atmosphere of fear during his rule. His legacy is a complex mix of achievements and controversies that shaped the early years of the Roman Empire.
Overall, Tiberius Caesar's reign remains a significant chapter in Roman history, contributing to the evolving dynamics of imperial rule in the ancient world.
3. Caligula, whose full name was Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, was the third Roman emperor who ruled from 37 AD to 41 AD. He is infamous for his tyrannical and erratic behavior during his short reign, which earned him a reputation as one of the most infamous and cruel emperors in Roman history.Caligula's early years were marked by relative stability, but after a severe illness, his behavior took a dramatic turn for the worse. He exhibited signs of madness and indulged in extravagant and often perverse behavior. He showed a particular fondness for cruelty, sadism, and sexual excesses. Some of his more notorious actions include declaring himself a god and demanding divine honors, ordering the construction of a lavish palace and floating bridge across the Bay of Naples, and engaging in incestuous relationships with his sisters.
His reign was characterized by lavish spending, which strained the Roman treasury, leading to increased taxation and economic hardships for the populace. Caligula's arbitrary and violent rule led to numerous executions and purges, as well as widespread fear among the Roman elite.
In 41 AD, Caligula was assassinated by a group of his own guardsmen, senators, and conspirators who sought to end his tyrannical rule. His death marked the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which had begun with his great-uncle Augustus. Caligula's brief and tumultuous reign serves as a cautionary tale in Roman history, illustrating the dangers of absolute power and unchecked authority.
4. Claudius, was the fourth Roman Emperor from 41 to 54 AD. He is perhaps best known for his unexpected rise to power and his efforts to stabilize and reform the Roman Empire during a tumultuous period.Born on August 1, 10 BC, Claudius belonged to the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which included notable figures like Augustus, Tiberius, and Caligula. Claudius suffered from various physical ailments, which led many of his contemporaries to underestimate his abilities. Consequently, he spent much of his early life in relative obscurity.
However, following the assassination of his nephew Caligula in 41 AD, Claudius was proclaimed Emperor by the Praetorian Guard. His reign marked a turning point in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Claudius implemented numerous reforms, such as expanding the Roman Empire's bureaucracy, improving infrastructure, and granting Roman citizenship to individuals in the provinces. He also undertook ambitious public works projects, including the construction of aqueducts and roads.
One of Claudius's most significant achievements was the successful invasion and annexation of Britain in 43 AD, which added a valuable province to the Roman Empire. He also attempted to improve the legal system and promote the rights of the lower classes.
However, Claudius's reign was marred by political intrigue and personal scandals, particularly involving his wives and family members. His fourth wife, Agrippina the Younger, played a significant role in securing the throne for her son, Nero, at the expense of Claudius's own biological son, Britannicus.
Claudius's death in 54 AD remains a subject of debate and suspicion, with some suggesting he was poisoned. Nevertheless, his reign had a lasting impact on the Roman Empire. His efforts to strengthen the imperial administration and expand the empire's borders left a legacy that influenced subsequent emperors and contributed to the stability of the Roman Empire during a challenging period in its history.
5. Nero, full name Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, was the fifth Roman emperor who ruled from 54 to 68 AD. He is one of the most infamous and controversial figures in Roman history. Here is a summary of Nero's life and reign:

1. Early Life and Rise to Power:
   
   • Nero was born in 37 AD in Antium (modern-day Anzio, Italy) into the Julio-Claudian dynasty, as the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger, a granddaughter of Emperor Augustus.
   • He became emperor at the age of 17 when his great-uncle, Emperor Claudius, died in 54 AD. His mother, Agrippina, played a significant role in securing his ascent to the throne.
2. Reign as Emperor:
   
   • Nero's early reign was marked by stability and competent administration, largely influenced by his advisors, especially Seneca the Younger and Burrus.
   • He implemented various reforms, including reducing taxes and improving the rights of slaves.
   • Nero was known for his artistic pursuits and love of the performing arts. He often participated in plays and musical performances, which was unusual for a Roman emperor.
3. The Great Fire of Rome (64 AD):
   
   • Nero is infamous for the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. Although it is unlikely that he ordered the fire, he used the disaster to his advantage.
   • The fire provided him with an opportunity to clear large areas of the city for grand construction projects, including his infamous Domus Aurea (Golden House).
4. Persecution of Christians:
   
   • Nero is traditionally associated with the persecution of Christians in Rome, which is believed to have started after the Great Fire. Christians were blamed for the fire and subjected to brutal persecution.
5. Decline and Fall:
   
   • Nero's later years were marked by increasing tyranny and extravagance. His rule became more erratic and cruel, leading to discontent among the Senate and the military.
   • In 68 AD, a series of revolts and conspiracies against Nero's rule erupted, eventually leading to his downfall.
   • Facing imminent capture and execution, Nero is said to have committed suicide in June 68 AD, becoming the first Roman emperor to do so.
6. Legacy:
   
   • Nero's reign is often remembered for its extravagance, tyranny, and association with the persecution of Christians. His reputation as a decadent and ruthless ruler has endured through history.
   • Despite his controversial legacy, Nero left a mark on Rome through his architectural projects, including the Domus Aurea and the construction of a massive statue known as the Colossus of Nero, which later inspired the creation of the Colosseum.

In summary, Nero's rule as Roman emperor is characterized by a complex mix of artistic patronage, early stability, and later tyranny. He remains a polarizing figure in history, remembered for both his contributions to Roman culture and his infamous acts of cruelty and persecution.

Year of The Four Emperors and Flavian Dynasty
6. Galba
7. Otho
8. Vitellius
9. Vespasian
10. Titus
11. Domitian

Nerva-Antonine Dynasty
12. Nerva
13. Trajan
14. Hadrian
15. Antoninus Pius
16. Lucius Verus
17. Marcus Aurelius
​18. Commodus

Year of The Five Emperors and Severan Dynasty
​19. Pertinax
20. Didius Julianus
21. Septimius Severus
22.  Caracalla
23. Geta
24. Macrinus & Diadumenian
25. Elagabalus
​26. Severus Alexander

In 476 AD, The Roman Empire would officially meet its end, at least in The Western Half, at the hands of The Barbarians that it oppressed for centuries, with the sacking of Rome. Along with the sacking of Roman, political strife and unstable political structure would bring the end of The Power of The Roman Empire after 1000 years of being The World Super Power. The World's First Super Power may have fallen, but its ashes, the rise of The World we know of Today would rise and the heights of human achievement would be found. The Roman Empire may no longer exist, but its legacy is felt in Today's World and therefore, Rome's Power is eternal. 

Before Civilization began in The World, humans were Hunter Gatherers. People were nomadic due to poor environmental conditions like The Ice Age and lack of tools and knowledge to settle in one spot for an extended period of time. Wherever the food was, the humans were. After a long passing of time, humans figured out how to farm and grow food locally and this led to them settling into one particular spot are a good amount of time. This eventually gave rise to what know Today as Civilization!

In Mesopotamia, The First recorded civilization in history was born, this city state would be known as Sumer. Sumer came about around the 4th millenium B.C. Here humans thrived on the two rivers that flowed through it known as the Tigris and Euphrates. The First City in The World would come out of Sumer, called Uruk. Legends like the Epic of Gilgamesh, The Oldest Story written known to man, were set in this Ancient city. Uruk is said to have been founded by King Enmarker in The Sumer Kingslist.  The Kingslist is an Ancient text written in Sumerian that list The King of Sumer. The King's List is a long list that goes on for eons in time. I shalt go over it in order. Warning, The Kinglist is going to be split into 20 parts. 

The Kingslist start with The Antediluvian Rulers. These rulers are believed to have not been truthfully historical due to the large lifespans of these rulers. This first part of The Kingslist may have been believe to be god-Kings with there Divine Powers would have been able to live very long life spans. The List Starts with Alulim who ruled for 8 Sars(28,800 Years) then Alalngar who reign for 10 Sars (36,000 Years), then Enmenluana who reign for 12 Sars(43,200 Years), then Enmengalana who ruled for 8 Sars( 28,800 Years) then Dumuzid The Shepherd who ruled for 10 Sars, then Ensipadzidana who ruled for 8 Sars, then Enmendurana ruled for 5 Sars and 5 Ners (21,000 Years) and then Ubara Tutu who reign for 5 Sars and 1 Ner( 18,600 Years). This first set of Kings ended when The Great Flood occurred. This wiped away a ton of resources and is believe by some to be The same flood that occur in The Bible in the Noah's Ark story. After the flood The Second set of Kings came to be, The First Dynasty of Kush. 

The First Dynasty of Kish begins with Jusher who ruled for 1200 Years, then Kullassina-bel who ruled for 960 years, then Nangishlishma whose reign was 670 Years, then Entarahana who reign for 420 years, then Babum who ruled for 300 years, then Puannum who reign for 840 years, then Kalibum who ruled for 960 years, then Kalumum who ruled for 840 years, then Zuqaqip who ruled for 900 years, then Atab or A-ba who ruled for 600 years, then Mashda who ruled for 840 years, then Arwium who ruled for 720 years, then Etana who reign for 1500 Years, then Balih who ruled for 400 Years, then Enmenuna who ruled for 660 years, then Melem-kish who ruled for 900 years, then Barsalnuna who ruled for 1200 Years, then Zamug who ruled for 140 years, then Tizqar who ruled for 305 years, then Ilku ruled for 900 years, then Iltasadum who ruled for 1200 years, then Enmebaragesi who ruled for 900 years; this is the first ruler to be confirmed independently, believed to have ruled around 2600 B.C.; and finally Aga of Kish who ruled for 625 years. After this dynasty the Kish were defeated and the kingship was taken to Eana. 

The third part of the Kingslist is known as The First Rulers of Uruk. The Rulers start with Meshkianggasher of Eana who reign for 324 years, then Enmerkar who ruled for 420 years, then Lugalbanda who ruled for 1200 years then Dumuzid who ruled for 100 years, then Gilgamesh who is from the oldest story in The World; The Epic of Gilgamesh; ruled 120 years, then Ur Nungal ruled for 30 years, then Udul-kalama who ruled for 15 years, then La-ba'shum who ruled for 9 years, then Ennuntarahana who ruled for 8 years then Meshhe The Smith ruled for 36 years, then Melemana who ruled for 6 years and finally Lugalkitun who ruled for 36 years. This era in The Kingslist ended when The Unug was defeated and the Kingship was taken to Ur.

The fourth part of The Kingslist is the First Dynasty of Ur which starts with Mesh Anepada who reign for 80 years, then Meshkiang Nuna who ruled for 36 years, then Elulu who ruled for 25 years and finally Balulu who reign for 36 years. When The Urim were defeated, the kingship was brought to Awan

The Fifth part of The Kingslist is not very long. It is known as The Dynasty of Awan. These were ruled by The Three Kings of Awan who ruled for 356 Years. After this reign The Awan were defeated and the kingship was returned to its original spot of Kish. 

The Sixth part of The Kingslist is called The Second Dynasty of Kish,. This part begins with Susuda The Fuller who ruled for 201 Years, then Dadasig who ruled for 81 Years, then Mamagal The Boatman who reign for 360 years, then Kalbum who ruled for 195 years, then Tuge who ruled for 360 Years, then Mennuna who ruled for 180 Years, then Enbi Ishtar who ruled for 290 years and then Lugalngu who ruled for 360 years. The dynasty of Kish ended when it was defeated and the kingship was brought to Hamazi. This Dynasty is not in The Kingslist but known from other inscriptions outside the Kingslist. The Ruler Hadanish ruled for 360 Years and Hamazi was defeated and brought back to Uruk 

The Seventh part of The Kingslist is The Second Dynasty of Uruk. The list begins with Enshagkushana who ruled for 60 years, then Lugal-kinishe-dudu or Lugal-ure who ruled for 120 years and Argandea who ruled for 7 years. Uruk would be defeated by Ur and The Kingship would return to Ur.

The Eight Part of The Kingslist is The Second Dynasty of Ur. The Second Dynasty of Ur consist of Nanni who ruled for 120 Years and Meshkiang Nanna II who ruled for 48 Years. Ur was defeated and The Kingdom was brought to Adab. 

The Dynasty of Adab had only one known ruler on The Kinglist. The ruler was Lugal Anemundu who ruled for 90 years. The Kingdom was brought to Mari after the defeat of Adab.

The tenth part of The Kingslist was known as The Dynasty of Mari. It starts with Anbu who ruled for 30 years, then Anba who ruled for 17 years, then Bazi The Leatherworker who ruled for 30 years, then Zizi of Mari The Fuller who ruled for 20 years, then Limer The 'gudug' priest who ruled for 30 years and Sharrumiter who ruled for 9 years. The Mari were defeated and The Kingdom was returned to Kish for the third time

The Third Dynasty of Kish was ruled by Kug Bau The Women Tavern-keeper who made firm the foundations of Kish for 100 years. Kish was defeated and brought to Akshak.

The Dynasty of Akshak was ruled first by Unzi who ruled for 30 years, then Undalulu who ruled for 6 years, then Urur who also ruled for 6 years, then Puzur Nirah who ruled for 20 years, then Ishu-II who ruled for 24 years and Shu Suen of Akshak who reign for 7 years. Akshak was defeated brought to Kish for a fourth time. 

The Fourth Dynasty of Kish begins with Puzur Suen The son of Kug-Bau who reign for 25 years, then Ur Zababa  for 400 or 6 years (questionable translation)' Sargon of Akkad was his cupbearer, then Zimudar who ruled for 30 years, then Usiwatar who ruled for 7 years, then Eshtarmuti who ruled for 11 years, then Ishme Shamash who ruled for 11 years, then Shuilishu who may have ruled for 15 years, and Nanniya The Jeweller who ruled for 7 years. Kish was defeated for a fourth time and The Kingdom was brought back to Uruk for a third time.

The third dynasty of Uruk was ruled by Galzagesi who ruled for 25 years. Uruk was defeated by Akkad kickstarting the Akkadian Empire. 

The Dynasty of Akkad also known as The Akkadian Empire or The First Empire was ruled by Sargon of Akkad, also known as The First Emperor who ruled for 40 years. After that The dynasty was ruled by Rimush of Akkad for 9 years, then Manishtushu for 15 years, then Naram Sin of Akkad for 56 years, then Sharkalisharri for 25 years, then it was split between Irgigi, Imi, Nanum and Ilulu for 4 years, then Dudu of Akkad for 21 years and Shu Durul for 15 years. Uruk defeated The Akkadian Empire and took The Kingdom to Uruk for The Fourth time.

The Fourth Dynasty of Uruk was ruled by Urningin for 7 years, then Urgigir for 6 years, then Kuda for 6 years, then Puzurili for 5 years and finally Ur Utu or Lugalmelem for 25 years. Uruk was defeated for a fourth time and taken to Gutium. 

The Guitian Rule or also known as The Gutian Dynasty was ruled first by Inkishush or Inkicuc for 6 years, then Sarlagab or Zarlagab for 6 years, then Shulme or Yarlagash for 6 years, then Elulmesh or Silulumesh who reign for 6 years then Inimabakesh or Duga who ruled for 5 years, then Igeshaush or Ilu An who ruled for 6 years, then Yarlagab who ruled for 3 years, then Ibate of Gutium who ruled for 3 years, then Yarla who ruled for 3 years, then Kurum who ruled for 1 year, then Apilkin who ruled for 3 years, then Laerabum who ruled for 2 years, then Irarum who ruled for 2 years, then Ibranum who ruled for 1 years, then Hablum who ruled for 2 years, then Puzur Suen who ruled for 7 Years, then Yarlaganda who reign for 7 years, then an unknown King ruled for 7 years and finally Tirigan ruled for 40 days. The Army of Gutium was defeated by Uruk and The Kingdom was returned to Uruk for a Fifth time.

The Fifth and final dynasty of Uruk was ruled by Utu-hengal who might have ruled 427 years or 26 years or 7 years. The writing is not precisely clear on the manner. Uruk was defeated by Ur and The Kingship was returned to Ur for the Third time

The Third dynasty of Ur was ruled by Ur Namma or Ur Nammu for 18 years, then Shulgi for 46 years, then Amar Suena for 9 years, then Shu Suen for 9 years and Ibbi Suen for 24 years. Ur was defeated by Isin and consequently brought to Isin.

The Final part of The Kingslist is The Dynasty of Isin. The rulers of this dynasty are Ishbi Erra who ruled for 33 years, then Shu-Illshu who ruled for 20 years, then Iddin Dagan who ruled for 20 years, then Ishme Dagan who ruled for 20 years, then Lipit Esthar who ruled for 11 years, then Ur Ninurta who ruled for 28 years, then Bur Suen who ruled for 21 years, then Lipit Enlil who ruled for 5 years, then Erra imitti who ruled for 8 years, then Enlil bani who ruled for 24 years, then Zambiya who ruled for 3 years, then Iter-pish who ruled for 4 years, then Urdukuga who ruled for 4 years, then Suenmagir who ruled for 11 years, the last but not least, Damiq-ilishu who may have ruled and may have ruled for 23 years, it's not clear on the text. With that, this was the complete Kingslist known to man. 

Let's go back to Sargon of Akkad and The Akkadian Empire. The Akkadian Empire was The First Empire in THe World and Sargon of Akkad was The First Emperor in The World. Sargon of Akkad was also known as Sargon The Great. The Center of The Akkadian Empire was of course Akkad. The First Empire of The World influence Power across Ancient World Mesopotamia, The Levant & Anatolia. This empire spaning in The Bronze Age from 2334 B.C. to 2154 B.C. The Akkadian Government, which was a Monarchy, established The Classical Standard. All future Mesopotamian States would try to match this Classical Standard. Traditionally, The Ensi, who was The Priest of The Land, had Supreme Power with The King, The Lugal, underneath The Ensi. This changed under Sargon of Akkad who believe he ruled The Totality of Lands Under The Heavens. Sargon believed he ruled The World. Little did he how big The World actually is. His empire however was not small by any means extending to a surface greater than alot of European and African Nations in Today's World.  The Akkadian Empire is believed to have ended due to a curse. The Sumerians believe a curse set by Naram-Sin, when he conquered The City of Nippur and demolish The Temple. 

Babylon, Capital City of Babylonia; is a staple to the timeline of Ancient Mesopotamia. Babylonia reigned as a Kingdom from 18th Century B.C. to 6th Century B.C. The First Emperor of Babylonia was King Hammurabi. This King's notary come from the fact that he established The first written code of Laws. This system of laws was known as Hammurabi's code or The Code of Hammurabi. The Laws gave clear guidelines on what was legal and illegal and what the punishments were for violating the law. The main rule of thumb was "An Eye for an Eye & a Tooth for a Tooth." This was known as The Law of Retaliation. A few of the crimes and punishments were: Theft which would result in execution, Slander which would result in the cutting of skin or hair, Fraud which would result in the criminal paying the victim tenfold the amount of the fraud & perjury would result in Execution.  

Mesopotamia never really ended in a since. Mesopotamia has many period throughout The Ages. The Stone Age saw Pre Pottery Neolithic A from 10,000 to 8700 B.C., Pre Pottery Neolithic B from 8700 B.C. to 6800 B.C., Jarma from 7500 B.C. to 5000 B.C., Hassuna from around 6000 B.C. to unknown, Sammra from 5700 B.C. to 4900 B.C., Halaf Culture from 6000 B.C. to 5300 B.C., Ubaid period from 5900 B.C. to 4400 B.C., Uruk period from 4400 to 3100 B.C. & Jemdet Nasr period from 3100 B.C. to 2900 B.C. The Early Bronze Age had Early Dynastic period from 2900 B.C. to 2350 B.C., Akkadian Empire from 2350 B.C. to 2100 B.C., Third Dynasty of Ur from 2112 to 2004 B.C. & Early Assyrian Kingdom for 24th century B.C. to the 18th century B.C. The Middle Bronze Age saw Early Babylonia from the 19th century B.C. to the 18th century B.C with this age ending with the Minoan Eruption in 1620 B.C. This eruption is believed to be caused by The Hebrew Exodus from Egypt ' The splitting of the red sea' which would have caused a tsunami to devastate the Minoan civilization. Call divine intervention or just pure luck, but if the story is factual, then this event in history affected more than just The Egyptians. The Late Bronze Age saw The Old Assyrian PEriod from the 16th to 11th century B.C., The Middle Assyrian Period from 1365 to 1076 B.C., The Kassities of Babylon from 1595 B.C. to 1155 B.C. & The Late Bronze Age Collapse from The 12th century B.C. to The 11th Century B.C. The collapse was said to be brought upon by The Sea Peoples who caused the collapse. The Bronze Age collapse affected Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece and more civilizations at the times. The Sea People were said to be a naval brigade of sea raiders who sacked and destroyed coastal towns across the mediterranean. One theory on who The Sea Peoples were, were The fleeing Trojans who escaped The destruction of Troy during The Trojan War. As The Trojans made their way to Latania, later Rome, they left a path of destruction wherever they lay siege. More contemporary theories however blame change in climate and fertility of the soil which cause The Bronze Age collapse. The Iron Age saw The Syro-Hittite States from The 11th century B.C. to The 7th century B.C., The Neo-Assyrian Empire from The 10th Century B.C. to The 7th Century B.C. & The Neo-Babylonian Empire from The 7th century B.C. to The 6th century B.C. The Classical World or Classical antiquity period saw Persian Babylonia & Achaemenid Assyria from the 6th century B.C. to The 4th Century B.C., Seleucid Mesopotamia for The 4th century B.C. to The 3rd century B.C., Parthian Babylonia from The 3rd century B.C. to The 3rd century A.D., Osroene from The 2nd century B.C. to The 3rd century A.D., Adiabene from The 1st Century A.D. to The 2nd Century A.D., Hatra from The 1st Century A.D. to The 2nd Century A.D. & The Roman Mesopotamia from The 2nd century A.D. to The 7th century A.D. The Late Antiquity era, the final era, had The Palmyrene Empire for The 3rd Century A.D., The Asoristan from The 3rd century A.D. to The 7th century A.D., Euphartensis from The mid 4th century  A.D. to the 7th century A.D. & last but not least The Muslim conquest in The mid-7th Century A.D. The Muslim conquest is seen as the end of Mesopotamia due to the fact of cultural, religious and name change of the area of land. The Traditional Mesopotamian gods were replaced by the god of Islam, Allah. Today's World's Mesopotamia is now called Iraq. Mesopotamia is the cradle of civilization and have inherited maybe aspect of Today's society from Mesopotamia. Western Civilization is even said to have its origins  in Mesopotamia. Three of The World's Major Religions, The Abrahamic Religions, Judaism, Christianity & Islam have their origins in this plot of land. The concept of written laws and punitive measures come from Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia is the bedrock of many of the essential aspects of society of today. Without it, would civilization even have stuck around in the course of human history? We have a lot to be thankful for from The World's First Civilization, Mesopotamia!

Aloha means The Breath of Life or The Presence of Breathe. The World Aloha owes Aloha to Hawaii where the language of origin, Hawaiian, is the Creator of the word Aloha. Hawaii is a collection on Active volcanic Island located in the Pacific Ocean. The most famous Islands of Hawaii include Big Island(Island of Hawaii), Maui & Oahu. Hawaii has 137 Islands! Hawaii was discovered somewhere in the time period 124 A.D. to 1120 A.D. by Polynesian People who were Native to Tahiti, Polynesia, Samoa & Tuamotus. The exact date of touchdown is unclear due to the fact that before settlers came to Hawaii, the Hawaiian language was just an oral language with no written words. No writing no history. This is why the written Hawaiian Language of Today's World utilizes Western European letters in order to spell the words. Before writing was brought to Hawaii, history was orally given through chant. These chants were usually recited at formal or family events. The governance of The Ancient Kingdom of Hawaii was administered by a Chief; Ali'i Chief or Hereditary Chief. The Power was divided amongst smaller chiefs known as konohiki.  These Chiefs were believed to have come from the line of the First Polynesian (Papa) who was known as The World (Earth) goddess of The Traditional Hawaiian Religion. Konohiki are also known as Land Agents. The Konohiki were responsible for Tributes and gifts.  This is how The Kingdom of Hawaii operated until the unification. 

The Hawaiian Kingdom was founded in 1795 when The Islands; Hawaii, Oahu, Maui, Molokai and Lanai were unified under from One Supreme King. The Military Leader Kamehameha The Great commanded A Streak of Battles everlasting 15 years that would lead to The Unification. In 1810 The Whole Hawaii was unified when Kauai and Niihau joined the kingdom willingly. This ended The Ancient Hawaiian Society and began a constitutional Monarchy rooted in The Traditions of Hawaii and The Traditions of Europa. Now thou ask, how would that have known of European Traditions? Well, before the unification, Hawaii was explored to by Captain James Cook, who would've taught The Hawaiian of his customs and culture and vice versa. In fact this has to do with Hawaii's Flag which is a combination of The United Kingdom's Flag, and eight stripes, similar to Americas 13 stripes which represent 13 colonies while the eight stripes on The Hawaiian flag represent The eight major islands of Hawaii which are Hawaii, Maui, Kaho'olawe, Lanai, Moloka'i, O'ahu, Kaua'i and Ni'ihau. With the unification of The Kingdom of Hawaii, The Kamehameha Dynasty began. 

Kalani Pai'ea Wohi o Kaleikini Keali'kui Kamehameha o 'Iolani i Kaiwikapu Kau'i Ka Liholiho Kunuiakea or King Kamehameha I (Kamehameha The Great) for short was The First King and Founder of The Unified Kingdom of Hawaii. Kamehameha I was born in Kohalo, Hawaii in 1758. Before the unification King Kamehameha battled for 15 years to seize dominance over The Islands of Hawaii. King Kamehameha I was very successful in his fights and would go on to be sovereign over all the Islands of Hawaii. His rule was based off The Traditional Hawaii system of Kapu with a mix of a new principles known as mamalahoe kanawai, translated to law of the splintered paddle.  The new laws would set to safeguard travelers and the powerless. King Kamehameha Today is legendary to the Hawaiian People.

Kamehameha The Great died in 1819 and was succeeded by his son Liholiho who would go by the name Kamehameha II. Kamehameha II was born in 1819 in Hilo, Hawaii. Kamehameha II's rule was undermined by Queen Ka'ahumanu because she wanted The Power. She once declared to The People of Hawaii that "We Two shall rule the land". Due to Kamehameha II's naivety to power and rule, he really did not have a choice in the matter.  Kamehameha II's legacy is best known by the 'Ai Noa which was the breaking of The Ancient Taboo, the Kapu. This taboo was broken was he sat down with Kaʻahumanu and his mother Keopuolani and ate a meal together. This led to the destruction of Hawaiian religious temples and images and the dispaining of the preist class.In 1824 while on a voyage to England, King Kamehameha II suffered pneumonia and died.

Keaweaweʻula Kīwalaʻō Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa Kalani Waiakua Kalanikau Iokikilo Kīwalaʻō i ke kapu Kamehameha also known as Kamehameha III was born 1825 in Kona, Hawaii. He was the third ruler of the unified Kingdom of Hawaii. Before his reign, Hawaii was an Absolute Monarchy, under his rule The Kingdom of Hawaii became a constitutional Monarchy with signing of the 1840 constitution and the 1852 constitution. King Kamehameha III had a short life only living to 40 years old dying on December 15th, 1854, about 100 year before Elvis Presley, The King of Rock N Roll and a big fan of Hawaii would become a Super Star. 

King Kamehameha IV was born February 9th, 1834 in Honolulu, Oahu. His reign as King of Hawaii would begin on January 11th, 1855 at 20 Years Old. In the time of his rule, Americans were increasingly growing in Power in Hawaii's Political, Cultural and Economic realm.  He sought to halt to conquest in fears of his land, Hawaii, from being conquered by America. We know today that 104 years after he ascension as sovereign over Hawaii, that hawaii would in fact become an American State. Nonetheless he did not have the benefit of hindsight. Kamehameha IV wanted to end Hawaii's dependence on American Trade therefore to end influence that Americans could bring to The Kingdom of Hawaii. He tried to make Trade Deals with Europe and The Kingdom(Britain/The United Kingdom) but he died before any of these proposals could come into reality. On November 30, 1864 King Kamehameha IV died in his Hometown of Honolulu, Oahu at the very young age of 29. Maybe if he had lived for just a little bit longer Today's World Hawaii may have been a Kingdom. 

The Final Kamehameha, King Kamehameha V was born in Honolulu, Oahu on December 11th, 1830. He assumed reign on November 30th, 1863. Kamehameha V became the Creator of The Royal Order of Kamehameha I Society in honor of his grandfather King Kamehameha I. The Royal Order of Kamehameha I Society was knighthood dedicated to defending The Sovereignty of The Monarchy of The Kingdom of Hawaii.
Travel to Hawaii boomed during King Kamehameha V's reign as King of Hawaii.  Today Hawaii is an extremely popular tourist destination that I would say almost all humans outside of Hawaii would want to visit. One other notable point in his reign is his bringing upon Universal Male Suffrage, The Right to Vote, in The election of The House of  Representatives in The Kingdom of Hawaii. He also was The First King of Hawaii who cheer on the return to Traditional Hawaiian Values and Practices. He died at age 42 in his Hometown Honolulu, Oahu on December 11th 1872. His Birthday was also his Deathday. 

Lunalilo was The First King of Hawaii without the title of Kamehameha was born in Pohukaina, Honolulu, Oahu on January 31st, 1874. Funny how this article is being published on his Birthday; 146 Years later. Lunalilo was The First Elected Monarch of Hawaii. Lunalilo was known as The People's King. His reign began on January 8th, 1873. He spent his reign making The Monarchy of Hawaii more democratic. He really wanted The People of Hawaii to make the choices necessary to grow Hawaii's Power and economic standing in The World. He died in Haimoeipo, Honolulu, Oahu on February 3rd, 1874 at age 39. 

Born November 16th, 1836, King Kalakaua would come to being in Honolulu, The Kingdom Of Hawaii. King Kalakaua would be the last King of Hawaii but not the last monarch. He was also known as The Merrie King. In 1881 King Kalakaua would Travel The World with his friends and his personal cook. He visited places like California, Japan, China, Southeast Asia, Europe, Portugal, Washington D.C. & San Francisco. In 1875 he signed a Free Trade Agreement with America and Hawaii known as The Reciprocity Treaty of 1875. This Free Trade Agreement would allow for US duty free trade of Sugar and other products between the two nations. This eventually gave America the territory Pearl Harbor even though Kalakaua was opposed to this. On January 20th, 1891 at age 54, King Kalakaua passed away in San Francisco, California, America; becoming The Second King of Hawaii to die outside of Hawaii's borders. The First King of Hawaii to die outside of Hawaii was King Kamehameha II who died in London, England. 

The First Queen of Hawaii and The Last Monarch of Hawaii, Queen Liliuokalani was born in Honolulu, Oahu, The Kingdom Of Hawaii on September 2nd, 1838. She would reign from January 29th, 1891 to January 17th, 1893 when The Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown. When she took oath of office, she declared that she we be The First and Only Queen of Hawaii. One of her first commands were to ask for the resignation of the holdover cabinet from her brother's reign. They refused, and asked for a ruling by the Hawaii Supreme Court. This first act of her being rejected was the first nail in the coffin of the monarchy, undermining your ruler will do that. Political infighting and other undesirable factors would eventually lead to the overthrow of The Kingdom of Hawaii. Queen Liliuokalani would become deceased on November 11, 1917 at age 79. Her reign ended 24 years earlier. Her reign lasted a little under two years. 

The Overthrow of The Hawaiian Kingdom Started on January 17th, 1893. The overthrow against The Final Monarch came via coup by American and other foreign citizens residing in The Kingdom of Hawaii; specifically Honolulu. The U.S. Marine corps protected the American and foreign interests in Hawaii and helped the revelounitions overthrow The Monarchy and establish The Republic of Hawaii. Later on Hawaii became annexed by America and became a United States territory in 1898. 61 Years later Hawaii would gain Statehood in The United States of America and would become The Last state of The USA in 1959. 

The Aloha State Today is a Super Awesome, Beautiful & Spectacular spot for Travel, Tourism and relaxation. The Native Hawaiians are quite Friendly and so are the other locals. They all encompass the essence of Aloha and practice its spirit daily. Hawaii can become very expensive but the cost is quite worth it to visit this marvelous Island(s). Sure Hawaii has its problems, but who doesn't, overall Hawaii is worthwhile and there is a reason why it culture influence much of Today's World!

Introduction
The Classical World Civilization of Troy also known as Troja, Illion, Ilios, Illium or Troia is located in Anatolia in Today's World. The people who inhabited Troja are called The Trojans. Troja is the place of Legend being the setting of the story The Iliad by Homer, the grounds of The Trojan War and also the people who fled Troja after its fall are believe to be The Roman Italians (Latins) in Today's World!
The Start of Troja
Troys History is split into it's 10 Major incarnations, Troy 1, Troy 2, Troy 3, Troy 4, Troy 5, Troy 6, Troy 7A, Troy 7B, Troy 8 & Troy 9. Troy 1 was founded in the Third Millennium B.C. during The Bronze Age. Troy 1 had a giant wall surrounding its borders to protect it from invaders. The Citadel it surrounded was not big however, for it was only 90 Meters or about 300 feet tall. A Citadel is a fortress that is usually on high ground that Dominates and protects a city, like Troy for example. Due to the located of The Ancient City of Troy, it was able to Juggernaut in The  Dardanelles; a narrow Straight that is Internationally significant in Turkey to this day, with absolute control of its waters. Whether of not there was A King of Troy 1 is unknown Today. Troy 1 was not destroyed by fire or invasion but in fact was demographically changed by peoples of a different culture. Troy 1 was now taken over.
Troy II
Troy II was founded 400 years after Troy 1 in 2600 B.C. The big difference between Troy 1 & II are the size and space the two had. Troy II was about twice the size of Troy 1 with a High Upper Citadel and a lower town within its walls. The King of Troy II lived in Palace that was Megaron style; common in Classical World Greece, in The Upper Acropolis. Troy II was destroyed by a Big Fire and was no more around 2250 B.C. Troy II lasted 350, 50 years shy of lasting as long as Troy 1 did. 
Troy III, IV & V
Troy III was founded in 2250 B.C. After the fire The Trojans rebuilt Troy bigger than before, but throughout Troy III to V, there is evidence of economic downturn by reason of houses being smaller and more compact than in Troy II. The Walls of Troy III, IV & V were still magnificent however, bringing evidence that The Kings of Troy were perhaps not feeling the impact of the economic decline. The focus also seemed to be on defending Troy and not expanding Troy to other territories. Troy IV was founded in 2100 BC and Troy V was founded in 1950 BC. 
Troy IV
Troy VI was founded around 1900 B.C. Troy IV was a massive by Ancient World Standards with a population around 5000 to 10,000 People. Troy IV is recognized by it's pillars at the south gate. It is thought that pillars were used for Religious purposes as opposed to practical structures for personal use. Mycenaean pottery found in Troy IV is evidence of trade with The Greeks still being active. Troy IV is believed to have been destroyed by an Earthquake in 1250 B.C.
Troy 7A
Troy 7A was founded in 1300 B.C. It is believed that it was built atop the ruins of Troy VI. Troy 7A Trojans moved within the walls of the citadel due to the threat of the Mycenaeans. Troy 7A is thought to have been the sight of The Trojan War.
The Trojan War
The Trojan war started in either the 13th or 12th Century B.C. The Trojan War was battled between The Trojans & The Classical World Greeks. The Trojan War started when Paris, son of The Trojan King, stole Helen from Menelaus from Sparta; her husband. Agamemnon, Menelaus's Brother, wanting to deliver Helen of Troy; his brother's wife back into his brother's arms; began The Trojan War! Many of the events of The Trojan War were told in The Iliad written by Homer; A Classical World Greek. The Trojan War was fought for 10 Years. The war ended when The Greek built a colossal wooden horse and hid themselves with it. This giant wooden horse would be called The Trojan Horse. When The Trojans brought The Trojan Horse into their walls the Greeks came out and sacked The City of Troy. The Greeks hath won the war. It is believed that some of the fleeing Trojans would later hath founded Roma, The Roman Empire. 
Troy 7B
Troy 7B was founded in the 1200's B.C. by new settlers. Not much is known about these settlers and they disappeared at around 1100 B.C.
Troy VIII
Troy VIII was founded in 700 B.C. Troy VIII was controlled by many different Nations and Cities. After the defeat of Persia by Greeks, Mytilene controlled Troy VIII until the Mytilenean revolt and Athens brought Freedom to Troy. In 399 Sparta controlled Troy. Control of Troy went back and forth for many years until its sacking in 85 B.C. by Rome.
Troy IX
Troy IX was founded in 85 B.C by The Roman Empire. The Siege of Troy by The Roman General Fimbria lasted eleven days. Troy was returned to The Trojans; The Romans now. The city had financial woes even though in had praise from The Romans. This situation was not helped in 80 B.C. when Pirates attacked Troy. Julius Caesar awarded benefactions to Troy because of its loyalty in The Mithridates Wars. Both Julius Caesar and Emperor Augustus Caesar took part in rebuilding Troy.  During Emperor Constantine's reign, The Emperor had plans to build Troy a new Capital but instead those efforts were spent building Constantinople.  Over time Troy's population grew smaller and smaller until eventually it slowly and quietly became abandon. The final lasted until 500 A.D or 550 A.D. A soft ending for a long lasting Legendary city. Troy would not be found for about 1500 Years.
Troy X
Troy X or Troy 10 would be the next era of Troy. Whether or not Troy will be rebuilt in Today's World or in the future is yet to be known. This is unlikely due to Troy now being a historic site  and rebuilding it may destroy The Ancient structures of The Classical World.
Conclusion
​The Ancient City of Troy in whole lasted around 3500 Years. It's been through a lot. Having 9 incarnations it is a testament that anything, no matter how damaged, can rise again from the ashes. We too, can do the same. Just like Troy, we can fall and crumble to the ground and still rise up again. Each time getting stronger and better and learning from our mistakes. Just like Troy, we also can become Legendary.

The Classical World refers to the time period in Troja, Roma, Greece, India & China. The Hellenic Classical period spanned two centuries between the 5th and 4th Century B.C. The significance of this period spans to even Today's World. A lot of the customs and philosophical worldviews of The West came out of The Classical World. Notable figures like Aristotle, Socrates, Plato, Alexander The Great and Leonidas are ingrained in our minds for all time came out of The Classical World.

The Classical Greek Period began in The 5th Century B.C. The Start of this era was sparked by The Ionian revolt against Persian dominance in The Aeolis, Doris, Cyprus & Caria regions. This would cause The Persians to invade in 492 B.C. and eventually be defeated in 490 B.C. by Darius I in The Battle of Marathon. The Battle of Marathon actually plays part in the origin in Today's Worlds Marathon Race. In the legend, it is stated that after The battle was won, an  Athenian Messenger was sent off from Marathon to Athens, a distance of 40 Kilometers or 25 Miles. Once he got to Athens, he collapsed and died of exhaustion. Today Marathons, which are now 26.2 Miles, are ran daily but runners from Around The World. 

In 431 B.C. conflict amongst two leagues of The Greek-City States broke out. The two leagues thrust into combat were The Delian League and The Peloponnesian League. The Delian League were made of multiple Greek-City States commanded by Athens. The Peloponnesian League had Sparta as its Leader. Sparta is itself a Greek City State that earlier in 510 B.C. helped Athens overthrow their sovereign, King Hippias. Athens replaced its Monarchy with Democracy in 507 B.C. Back at the time it was called Demokratia. Demo in Greek is People and Kratos in Greek translates to Power. People's Power or Rule of The People would be its full translation. Now whether or not this was a good thing is still up for debate. Aristotle, a Classical World Philosopher stated "Democracy arouse from men's thinking that if they are equal in any respect they are equal absolutely." Aristotle had other protest to Democracy including that for it too work all must be virtuous while in monarchy only one must be.
Sparta had a Diarchy. A Diarchy is a government with to sovereign heads. The first advance by The Spartans in the conflict was to breach Attica. The Athenians were able to Maintain Attica from the Spartans by  drawing back behind the walls. After years of combat no clear victor was decided and 421 B.C. The Peace of Nicias was established by Athenian Leader Nicias. The Peace of Nicias was also known as The Fifty Year Peace; it was signed by Athens and Sparta in March of that year. 

Strife amongst Argos and Sparta came to being in 418 B.C. Even with Athenian support Argos fell to Sparta and Argos & The Peloponnesus were conquered. The restoration to peace for Athens helped build The Athenian Empire due to finances being brought back into order and trade opening up. The restraint for war and the emphasis on growing the economy brought upon the Peace Party.
This did not go without attention from another Greek city-state however. Conflict with Melos, started during a failed attempt to force Melos to join the Delian League back in 477 B.C. In 416 B.C. the boiling point for The Athenian thirst for combat was quenched by The Island of Melos. Melos was plundered by Athens and occupation of the island was by Athens. The hunger for conflict would not keep Athens full for long. In 415 B.C., The Sicilian Expedition henced. Alcibiades urged Athens to launch an invasion of Syracuse, a region in Sicily would was allied with The Peloponnesians. 

Unlike the battles with Melos, the war with Syracuse was split in interest by The Athenian people. Some wanted it and some did not. Even so, in 415 B.C. Athens departed for Sicily. One the eve of the expedition, the Peace Party were believed to have vandalized The Greek god Hermes statues, spreading the pieces all through Athens. This of course would have been a protest to the war with Sicily. This was a desperate action taken by The Peace Party after losing the debate on war with Sicily. The Action taken by The Peace Party was seen as a bad omen, and it probably was since the expedition was a utter failure. In fact Nicias was captured and executed. 

Later on Sparta, with monetary assistance from the Persians, built a naval fleet to attack Athenian Supremacy over the seas. Rookie Military Leader Lysander attacked Abydos by occupying Hellespont. Hellespont was a source of grain for Athens. Facing severe famine, Athens sent all of its fleets to defy Lysander. In 405 B.C. in Aegospotami, Athenian fleets were crushed. With this, Athens was faced with potential Bankruptcy and 404 B.C. asked for Peace. Sparta did not comply and Athens lost their fleet, their city walls and all their belongings overseas. Lysander withdraw Athens democracy and installed a Oligarchy known as The Thirty Tyrants. Athenian dominance was over. 

The Spartans were now The Masters of The Classical World. Their short-minded warrior mentality did not mix well with this new role however and 9 years, The Power of democracy returned to Athens. Sparta removed Lysander, and Sparta lost its naval supremacy. Greek city-states; Athens, Argo, Thebes, and Corinth,  challenged Sparta's dominance in the Corinthian War, which ended in 387 B.C. with no clear victor.  In 378 B.C. Thebans in Thebes, which was controlled by Sparta, revolted. An alliance between Athens and Thebes was formed and war with Sparta was on. In 375 B.C. Theban Leader Pelopidas defeated The Spartans in The Battle of Tegyra. In little time, Theban authority increased expedentionally. The Thebans growing influence over The Classical World sparked suspicion in Athens. After Thebes sacked Athenian ally Plataea, Athens formed an alliance with Sparta to face-off with Thebes. In 371 Thebes attacked Sparta, winning The Battle of Leuctra. This would spell the fall of Sparta, however influence over Sparta would not be Theban but Athenian.

Alexander The Great conquered many lands and is World Famous Today. King Alexander is Legendary and his feats may never be forgotten. But like all things, The Legends may be immortal but The Legend is mortal. In 323 B.C. Alexander The Great died. When this event occurred this ignited another event; The end of The Classical World. 

Classical Rome will be discussed briefly. The Classical World mostly referred to Classical Greece, however Rome, India and China also take a spot in The Classical World so those two also will be briefly discussed. The Start of Classical Rome was in the 8th century B.C. and the end of Classical Rome was in 6th Century A.D. The Classical period of Rome began Romulus and Remus, the predecessors of the fallen city of Troja (Troy) founded The City of Rome. Well Romulus founded it and it was named after him. This started The Roman Kingdom which lasted till 509 B.C. when The Rex (King in Latin) was overthrown and The Roman Kingdom was replaced by The Roman Republic. The Roman Republic rule of law was administered primarily by The Senate; a body of law making representatives. The senate would soon dissolve thanks to large part by Julius Caesar; a Super Awesome Military Leader. He would go on to become dictator for life but this was ended very soon because of a coop of senators who conspired to assassinate him. This would not save The Roman Republic however, for his adopted son, Octavius, would become Princeps in name; Emperor in truth; known as Augustus Caesar; The First Emperor of Rome. The Roman Empire began. The Roman Empire would expand and eventually The Western Roman Empire aka Classical Rome would Fall in 476 A.D. 

The Start of Classical China was in the 5th Century B.C. and The End of Classical China was in 220 A.D.
Classical China had many great historical figures. These included Confucius, Lao Tzu, Sun Tzu and more. The Silk Road thrived during this period connecting The Western World with The Eastern World. The Great Wall of China was built during Classical China. The main cause of the fall of Classical China was The Huns. 

The Start of Classical India was around 500 B.C and The End of Classical India was around 500 A.D. Classical India would see the creation of The Vedas, The Caste System, Buddhism, and Sanskrit. Classical India was ruled under The Gupta Empire. Classical India would fall due to a number of factors both internal and external. Eventually in 550 A.D. Classical India would say goodbye to The World. 

The Classical World has Major League Power in Today's World. Big Players like King Leonidas, Aristotle, Plato, Socrates, King Alexander The Great, Julius Caesar, Confucius & Augustus Caesar influenced a mass of Today's Philosophy, Politics and World views. Leonidas a Powerful, Strong, Courageous Leader who fought off valiantly against his people's enemies. Aristotle brought about The concept of Virtue and Vice and how they work. Plato discussed Ethics and Realism. Socrates made us know that we in fact do not know anything truly. Finally Alexander The Great was a Super Powerful, Domaniting, conquering King who showed the practice of Virtue over Vice. Without The Classical World, Today's World would look alot different and perhaps would not be as well off as it is today. One can say, The Classical World is The Creator of Today's World!